Английская Википедия:Cham language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Distinguish Шаблон:Infobox language
Cham (Cham: ꨌꩌ) is a Malayo-Polynesian language of the Austronesian family, spoken by the Chams of Southeast Asia. It is spoken primarily in the territory of the former Kingdom of Champa, which spanned modern Southern Vietnam, as well as in Cambodia by a significant population which descends from refugees that fled during the decline and fall of Champa. The Western variety is spoken by 220,000 people in Cambodia and 25,000 people in Vietnam. As for the Eastern variety, there are about 73,000 speakers in Vietnam,[1] for a total of approximately 491,448 speakers.[2]
Cham belongs to the Chamic languages, which are spoken in parts of mainland Southeast Asia, Indonesia's Aceh Province, and on the island of Hainan. Cham is the oldest-attested Austronesian language, with the Đông Yên Châu inscription being verifiably dated to the late 4th century AD. It has several dialects, with Eastern Cham (Phan Rang Cham) and Western Cham being the main ones. The Cham script, derived from the ancient Indic script, is still used for ceremonial and religious purposes.
History
Ancient Roots
Шаблон:Further The Cham people have a long and rich history that dates back to ancient times. They are believed to be descendants of the Champa Kingdom, which was a powerful and influential kingdom that flourished in what is now central and southern Vietnam from around the 2nd to the 17th century. The Champa Kingdom had a distinctive culture and language that set the Cham people apart from their neighbors.
Champa Kingdom
The Champa Kingdom played a significant role in regional trade and cultural exchange, interacting with neighboring civilizations such as the Khmer Empire, the Dai Viet (Vietnamese), and others. The Cham people developed their own script, known as Cham script, which was used for inscriptions and religious texts.
Decline of Champa
The decline of the Champa Kingdom began in the 15th century, and by the 17th century, it had been absorbed by the expanding Vietnamese state. This period marked significant cultural and linguistic changes for the Cham people as they came under the influence of the dominant Vietnamese culture.
Cham Diaspora
As a result of historical events, including wars and the annexation of Champa by Vietnam, the Cham people faced displacement. Some migrated to Cambodia, where they established communities, while others remained in Vietnam. The Cham language underwent changes and adaptations as the Cham people interacted with the cultures of their new environments.
Modern Challenges
In the contemporary era, the Cham language faces challenges such as assimilation, linguistic shifts, and the influence of dominant languages in the regions where Cham communities reside. Efforts are being made to preserve and revitalize the Cham language, including cultural programs, educational initiatives, and documentation of the language.
Phonology
The Cham language dialects each have 21 consonants and 9 vowels.[3]
Consonants
Vowels
Monophthongs
Diphthongs
Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA (occurs only before Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA (occurs only before Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA.
Grammar
Word formation
There are several prefixes and infixes which can be used for word derivation.[4]
- prefix pa-: causative, sometimes giving more force to the word
- thau (to know) → pathau (to inform)
- blei (to buy) → pablei (to sell)
- biér (low) → pabiér (to lower)
- yao (like, as) → payao (to compare)
- jâ (finished) → pajâ (well finished)
- prefix mâ-: sometimes causative, often indicates a state, possession, mutuality, reciprocity
- jru (poison) → mâjru (to poison)
- Шаблон:Transliteration (teacher) → mâgru (to study)
- tian (belly) → mâtian (pregnancy)
- boh (egg, fruit) → mâboh (lay an egg, give fruit)
- daké (horn) → mâdaké (having horns)
- prefix ta- or da-: frequentative
- galung (to roll) → tagalung (to roll around)
- dep (to hide oneself) → dadep (to be Шаблон:Not a typo to hide oneself)
- infix -an-: noun formation
- puec (to speak) → panuec (speech)
- tiw (row) → taniw (oar)
- dok (to live) → danok (house, living place)
- infix -mâ-: no specific meaning
- payao (to compare) → pamâyao (to compare)
Reduplication is often used:[4]
- palei, pala-palei (country)
- rambah, rambah-rambâp (misery)
Syntax and word order
Cham generally uses SVO word order, without any case marking to distinguish subject from object:[5] Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear
Dummy pronominal subjects are sometimes used, echoing the subject: Шаблон:Interlinear
Composite verbs will behave as one inseparable verb, having the object come after it: Шаблон:Interlinear
Sometimes, however, the verb is placed in front of the subject: Шаблон:Interlinear
Auxiliary verbs are placed after any objects: Шаблон:Interlinear
If a sentence contains more than one main verb, one of the two will have an adverbial meaning: Шаблон:Interlinear
Adjectives come after the nouns they modify:[6] Шаблон:Interlinear
If the order is reversed, the whole will behave like a compound: Шаблон:Interlinear
Composite sentences can be formed with the particle krung:[7] Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear
It is also possible to leave out this particle, without change in meaning:[5] Шаблон:Interlinear
Questions are formed with the sentence-final particle rẽi:[8] Шаблон:Interlinear
Other question words are in situ: Шаблон:Interlinear
Nominals
Like many languages in Eastern Asia, Cham uses numeral classifiers to express amounts.[9] The classifier will always come after the numeral, with the noun coming invariably before or after the classifier-numeral pair. Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear The above examples show the classifier boḥ, which literally means "egg" and is the most frequently used — particularly for round and voluminous objects. Other classifiers are ôrang (person) for people and deities, ḅêk for long objects, blaḥ (leaf) for flat objects, and many others.
The days of the month are counted with a similar system, with two classifiers: one (bangun) used to count days before the full moon, and the other one (ranaṃ) for days after the full moon.[10] Шаблон:Interlinear Шаблон:Interlinear
Personal pronouns behave like ordinary nouns and do not show any case distinctions. There are different forms depending on the level of politeness. The first person singular, for example, is kău in formal or distant context, while it is dahlak (in Vietnam) or hulun (in Cambodia) in an ordinarily polite context. As is the case with many other languages of the region, kinship terms are often used as personal pronouns.[7]
Comparative and superlative are expressed with the locative preposition di/dii:[11] Шаблон:Interlinear
Verbs
There are some particles that can be used to indicate tense/aspect.[12] The future is indicated with si or thi in Vietnam, with hi or si in Cambodia. The perfect is expressed with jâ. The first one comes in front of the verb: Шаблон:Interlinear
The second one is sentence-final: Шаблон:Interlinear
Certain verbs can function as auxiliaries to express other tenses or aspects.[13] The verb dok ("to stay") is used for the continuous, wâk ("to return") for the repetitive aspect, and kieng ("to want") for the future tense.
The negation is formed with oh/o at either or both sides of the verb, or with di/dii[14] in front.[12]
The imperative is formed with the sentence-final particle bék, and the negative imperative with the preverbal juai/juei (in Vietnam and Cambodia respectively).[12]
Sociolinguistics
Diglossia
Brunelle observed two phenomena of language use among speakers of Eastern Cham: They are both diglossic and bilingual (in Cham and Vietnamese). Diglossia is the situation where two varieties of a language are used in a single language community, and oftentimes one is used on formal occasions (labelled H) and the other is more colloquial (labelled L).[15][16]
Dialectal differences
Cham is divided into two primary dialects.
- Western Cham: It is spoken by the Chams in Cambodia as well as in the adjacent Vietnamese provinces of An Giang and Tây Ninh.
- Eastern Cham: It is spoken by the coastal Cham population in the Vietnamese provinces of Bình Thuận, Ninh Thuận, and Đồng Nai.
The two regions where Cham is spoken are separated both geographically and culturally. The more numerous Western Cham are predominantly Muslims (although some in Cambodia now practice Theravāda Buddhism), while the Eastern Cham practice both Hinduism and Islam. Ethnologue states that the Eastern and Western dialects are no longer mutually intelligible. The table below gives some examples of words where the two dialects differed as of the 19th century.[17]
Cambodia southern Vietnam vowels child anœk anẽk take tuk tôk not jvẽi jvai sibilants one sa tha save from drowning srong throng salt sara shara equal samu hamu final consonants heavy trap trak in front anap anak lexical differences market pasa darak hate amoḥ limuk
Lê et al. (2014:175)[18] lists a few Cham subgroups.
- Chăm Poông: in Thạnh Hiếu village, Phan Hiệp commune, Bắc Bình District, Bình Thuận Province. The Chăm Poông practice burial instead of cremation as the surrounding Cham do.
- Chăm Hroi (population 4,000): in Phước Vân District (Bình Định Province), Đồng Xuân District (Phú Yên Province), and Tây Sơn District (Bình Định Province)
- Chàvà Ku, a mixed Malay-Khmer people in Châu Đốc
Writing systems
Cham script is a Brahmic script.[1] The script has two varieties: Akhar Thrah (Eastern Cham) and Akhar Srak (Western Cham). The Western Cham language is written with the Arabic script or the aforementioned Akhar Srak.[19][20]
Example text
ꨕꨨꨵꩀ ꨧꨮ ꨍꨯꩆ ꨇꩈ ꨟꨮꨭ ꨕꨮꩃ ꨆꩇ ꨨꩆ ꨨꩈ ꨕꩃ ꨕꨭ ꨟꨁꨁ ꨍꨭꨢꨮꩆ ꨚꩈ ꨔꩃ ꨣꩇ ꨆꨨꨁꨃꨂ ꨝꩆ ꨔꩆ ꨇꨯꩂ ꨍꨮꨭ ꨓꨮ ꨨꩃ ꨍꨮꨭ ꨆꨯ ꨟꨶꩆ ꨕꩈ ꨌꩌ
Dictionaries
The Ming dynasty Chinese Bureau of Translators produced a Chinese-Cham dictionary.Шаблон:Citation needed
John Crawfurd's 1822 work "Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China" contains a wordlist of the Cham language.[21]Шаблон:Rp
See also
Notes
Further reading
Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Incubator
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Blood, D. L., & Blood, D. (1977). East Cham language. Vietnam data microfiche series, no. VD 51-72. Huntington Beach, Calif: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Blood, D. L. (1977). A romanization of the Cham language in relation to the Cham script. Vietnam data microfiche series, no. VD51-17. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
- Kaipuleohone has an archive including written materials of Cham
Шаблон:Navboxes Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокe26не указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 12,2 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ This happens to be homophonous with the locative preposition.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Lê Bá Thảo, Hoàng Ma, et. al; Viện hàn lâm khoa học xã hội Việt Nam - Viện dân tộc học. 2014. Các dân tộc ít người ở Việt Nam: các tỉnh phía nam. Ha Noi: Nhà xuất bản khoa học xã hội. Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- Английская Википедия
- Languages attested from the 8th century
- Languages of Cambodia
- Languages of Malaysia
- Languages of Thailand
- Languages of Vietnam
- Chamic languages
- Subject–verb–object languages
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