Английская Википедия:Chamorro language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox language
Chamorro (Шаблон:IPAc-en;[1] Шаблон:Lang-ch (CNMI), Шаблон:Lang (Guam)[2]) is an Austronesian language spoken by about 58,000 people, numbering about 25,800 on Guam and about 32,200 in the Northern Mariana Islands and elsewhere.[3] It is the native and spoken language of the Chamorro people, the indigenous people of the Mariana Islands. Chamorro has three distinct dialects: Guamanian, Rotanese, and that in the other Northern Mariana Islands (NMI).
Classification
Unlike most of its neighbors, Chamorro is not classified as a Micronesian or Polynesian language. Rather, like Palauan, it possibly constitutes an independent branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language family.[4][5]
At the time the Spanish rule over Guam ended, it was thought that Chamorro was a semi-creole language, with a substantial amount of the vocabulary of Spanish origin and beginning to have a high level of mutual intelligibility with Spanish. It is reported that even in the early 1920s, Spanish was reported to be a living language in Guam for commercial transactions, but the use of Spanish and Chamorro was rapidly declining as a result of English pressure.
Spanish influences in Chamorro exist due to three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. Many words in the Chamorro lexicon are of Latin etymological origin via Spanish, but the pronunciation of these loanwords has been nativized to the phonology of Chamorro, and their use conforms to indigenous grammatical structures. Some authors consider Chamorro a mixed language[6] under a historical point of view, even though it remains independent and unique. In his Chamorro Reference Grammar, Donald M. Topping states:
"The most notable influence on Chamorro language and culture came from the Spanish.... There was wholesale borrowing of Spanish words and phrases into Chamorro, and there was even some borrowing from the Spanish sound system. But this borrowing was linguistically superficial. The bones of the Chamorro language remained intact.... In virtually all cases of borrowing, Spanish words were forced to conform to the Chamorro sound system.... While Spanish may have left a lasting mark on Chamorro vocabulary, as it did on many Philippine and South American languages, it had virtually no effect on Chamorro grammar.... The Japanese influence on Chamorro was much greater than that of German but much less than Spanish. Once again, the linguistic influence was restricted exclusively to vocabulary items, many of which refer to manufactured objects....[7]
In contrast, in the essays found in Шаблон:Lang (2009), Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga refers to modern Chamorro as a "mixed language" of "Hispanic-Austronesian" origins and estimates that approximately 50% of the Chamorro lexicon comes from Spanish, whose contribution goes far beyond loanwords.
Rodríguez-Ponga (1995) considers Chamorro to be either Spanish-Austronesian or a Spanish-Austronesian mixed language, or at least a language that has emerged from a process of contact and creolization on the island of Guam since modern Chamorro is influenced in vocabulary and has in its grammar many elements of Spanish origin: verbs, articles, prepositions, numerals, conjunctions, etc.[8]
The process, which began in the 17th century and ended in the early 20th century, meant a profound change from the old Chamorro (paleo-Chamorro) to modern Chamorro (neo-Chamorro) in its grammar, phonology, and vocabulary.[9]
Speakers
The Chamorro language is threatened, with a precipitous drop in language fluency over the past century. It is estimated that 75% of the population of Guam was literate in the Chamorro language around the time the United States captured the island during the Spanish–American War[10] (there are no similar language fluency estimates for other areas of the Mariana Islands during this time). A century later, the 2000 U.S. Census showed that fewer than 20% of Chamorros living in Guam speak their heritage language fluently, and the vast majority of those were over the age of 55.
A number of forces have contributed to the steep, post-World War II decline of Chamorro language fluency. There is a long history of colonization of the Marianas, beginning with the Spanish colonization in 1668 and, eventually, the American acquisition of Guam in 1898 (whose hegemony continues to this day). This imposed power structures privileging the language of the region's colonizers. According to estimates, a large majority, as stated above (75%), maintained active knowledge of the Chamorro language even during the Spanish colonial era, but this was all to change with the advent of American imperialism and enforcement of the English language.
In Guam, the language suffered additional suppression when the U.S. government banned the Chamorro language in schools and workplaces in 1922, destroying all Chamorro dictionaries.[11] Similar policies were undertaken by the Japanese government when they controlled the region during World War II. After the war, when Guam was recaptured by the United States, American administrators of the island continued to impose "no Chamorro" restrictions in local schools, teaching only English and disciplining students for speaking their indigenous tongue.[12]
While these oppressive language policies were progressively lifted, Chamorro usage had substantially decreased. Subsequent generations were often raised in households where only the oldest family members were fluent. Lack of exposure made it increasingly difficult to pick up Chamorro as a second language. Within a few generations, English replaced Chamorro as the language of daily life.Шаблон:Citation needed
There is a difference in the rate of Chamorro language fluency between Guam and the rest of the Marianas. On Guam (called Шаблон:Lang by Chamorro speakers, from the word Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'have'; its English gloss 'We have' references the island's providing everything needed to live[13][14])Шаблон:Relevance inline the number of native Chamorro speakers has dwindled in the last decadeШаблон:When or so. In the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI), younger Chamorros speak the language fluently but prefer English when speaking to their children. Chamorro is common in Chamorro households in the Northern Marianas, but fluency has greatly decreased among Guamanian Chamorros during the years of American rule in favor of the American English commonplace throughout the Marianas.
Today, NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros disagree strongly on each other's linguistic fluency. An NMI Chamorro would say Guamanian Chamorros speak "broken" Chamorro (i.e., incorrect), whereas a Guamanian Chamorro might consider the form used by NMI Chamorros to be archaic.Шаблон:Citation needed
Revitalization efforts
Representatives from Guam have unsuccessfully lobbied the United States to take action to promote and protect the language.Шаблон:Citation needed
In 2013, "Guam will be instituting Public Law 31–45, which increases the teaching of the Chamorro language and culture in Guam schools", extending instruction to include grades 7–10.[15]
Other efforts have been made in recent times, most notably Chamorro immersion schools. One example is Huråo Guåhan Academy at Chamorro Village in downtown Hagåtña. This program is led by Ann Marie Arceo and her husband, Ray. According to the academy's official YouTube page, "Huråo Academy is one if not the first Chamoru Immersion Schools that focus on the teaching of Chamoru language and Self-identity on Guam. Huråo was founded as a non-profit in June 2005."[16] The academy has been praised by many for the continuity of the Chamoru language.
Other creative ways to incorporate and promote the Chamorro language have been found in the use of applications for smartphones, internet videos and television. From Chamorro dictionaries,[17] to the most recent "Speak Chamorro" app,[18] efforts are growing and expanding in ways to preserve and protect the Chamorro language and identity.
On YouTube, a popular Chamorro soap opera Siha[19] has received mostly positive feedback from native Chamorro speakers on its ability to weave dramatics, the Chamorro language, and island culture into an entertaining program. On TV, Nihi! Kids is a first-of-its-kind show, because it is targeted "for Guam's nenis that aims to perpetuate Chamoru language and culture while encouraging environmental stewardship, healthy choices and character development."[20]
In 2019, local news station KUAM News began a series of videos on their YouTube channel, featuring University of Guam's Dr. Michael Bevacqua.[21]
Phonology
Chamorro has 24 phonemes: 18 are consonants and 6 are vowels.
Vowels
Chamorro has at least 6 vowels, which include:
- Шаблон:IPAslink, open back unrounded vowel equivalent to the "a" in father.
- Шаблон:IPAslink, near-open front unrounded vowel equivalent to the "a" in cat.
- Шаблон:IPAslink, close-mid front unrounded vowel equivalent to the "e" in the Received Pronunciation of met.
- Шаблон:IPAslink, close front unrounded vowel equivalent to the "ee" in sleep.
- Шаблон:IPAslink, close-mid back unrounded vowel equivalent to the "o" in corn.
- Шаблон:IPAslink, close back rounded vowel equivalent to the "u" in flu.
| Front | Back | |
|---|---|---|
| Close | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link |
| Mid | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link |
| Open | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link |
Consonants
Below is a chart of Chamorro consonants; all are unaspirated.
- Шаблон:IPA does not occur initially.
- Affricates Шаблон:IPA can be realized as palatal Шаблон:IPA before non-low front vowels.Шаблон:Sfnp
Grammar
Chamorro is a VSO or verb–subject–object language. However, the word order can be very flexible and change to SVO (subject-verb-object), like English, if necessary to convey different types of relative clauses depending on context and to stress parts of what someone is trying to say or convey. Again, that is subject to debate as those on Guam believe the Chamorro word order is flexible, but those in the CNMI do not.
Chamorro is also an agglutinative language, whose grammar allows root words to be modified by a number of affixes. For example, Шаблон:Lang 'talked a while (with/to)', passive marking prefix Шаблон:Lang, root verb Шаблон:Lang, referential suffix Шаблон:Lang 'to' (forced morphophonemically to change to e) with excrescent consonant n, and suffix Шаблон:Lang 'a short amount of time'. Thus Шаблон:Lang 'He/she was told (something) for a while'.
Chamorro has many Spanish loanwords and other words have Spanish etymological roots (such as Шаблон:Lang 'shop/store' from Spanish Шаблон:Lang), which may lead some to mistakenly conclude that the language is a Spanish creole, but Chamorro very much uses its loanwords in an Austronesian way (Шаблон:Lang 'playing ball' from Шаблон:Lang 'ball, play ball' with verbalizing infix Шаблон:Lang and reduplication of the first syllable of root).
Chamorro is a predicate-initial head-marking language. It has a rich agreement system in the nominal and in the verbal domains.
Chamorro is also known for its wh-agreement in the verb. The agreement morphemes agree with features (roughly the grammatical case feature) of the question phrase and replace the regular subject–verb agreement in transitive realis clauses:[22]
Pronouns
The following set of pronouns is found in Chamorro:[23]
| Free | Absolutive | Agentive | Irrealis nominative | Possessive | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person singular | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang* |
| 2nd person singular | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3rd person singular | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1st person plural inclusive | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1st person plural exclusive | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2nd person plural | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3rd person plural | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| * For 1st person singular possessives, the CNMI orthography also lists -su and -tu as allomorphs of -hu following words ending in -s and -t, respectively.[24] | |||||
Orthography
| Capital | Lowercase | IPA | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Guam | NMI | ||
| ʼ Шаблон:Efn | Шаблон:IPAslink | ||
| A | a | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| Å | å | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| BШаблон:EfnШаблон:Efn | b | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| CHШаблон:Efn | Ch | ch | Шаблон:IPAslink |
| DШаблон:EfnШаблон:Efn | d | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| E | e | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| F | f | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| GШаблон:EfnШаблон:Efn | g | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| HШаблон:Efn | h | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| I | i | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| K | k | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| LШаблон:EfnШаблон:Efn | l | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| M | m | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| N | n | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| ÑШаблон:Efn | ñ | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| NG | Ng | ng | Шаблон:IPAslink |
| O | o | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| P | p | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| RШаблон:Efn | r | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| S | s | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| T | t | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| U | u | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
| YШаблон:Efn | y | Шаблон:IPAslink | |
The letters Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr are only used in proper names.[25]
In loanwords, some letter combinations in Chamorro sometimes represent single phonemes. For instance, "ci+[vowel]" and "ti+[vowel]" are both pronounced Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Lang ('justice') and the surname Шаблон:Lang (Spanish influence).
The letter Шаблон:Angle bracket is usually (though not always) pronounced more like Шаблон:IPAblink (cf. zheísmo in Rioplatense Spanish); it is also sometimes used to represent the same sound as the letter Шаблон:Angbr by Guamanian speakers. The phonemes represented by Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket as well as Шаблон:Angle bracket and Шаблон:Angle bracket are not always distinguished in print. Thus the Guamanian place name spelled Шаблон:Angbr is pronounced Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA, not Шаблон:IPA as might be expected. Шаблон:Angle bracket is usually pronounced like Шаблон:IPAblink rather than like English ch. Chamorro Шаблон:Angle bracket is usually a tap Шаблон:IPA, but is rolled Шаблон:IPA between vowels, and it is a retroflex approximant Шаблон:IPA, like English r, at the beginning of words. Words that begin with r in the Chamorro lexicon are exclusively loanwords.Шаблон:Citation needed
Chamorro has geminate consonants which are written double Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr. Its native diphthongs are Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr occur in loanwords. When Шаблон:Angbr and another vowel are in hiatus, (i.e., Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA), they are spelled Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Angbr.[25]
The default stress in Chamorro penultimate stress, except where marked otherwise. If marked at all in writing, it is usually with an acute accent, as in Шаблон:Lang 'blue' or Шаблон:Lang 'big'. Unstressed vowels are limited to Шаблон:IPA, though they are often spelled Шаблон:Angbr. Syllables may be maximally consonant-vowel-consonant, as in Шаблон:Lang 'sibling', Шаблон:Lang 'unload', Шаблон:Lang 'shy', Шаблон:Lang 'lie face down', Шаблон:Lang (Old Chamorro word for 100), or Шаблон:Lang (capital of Guam).
Chamorro language orthography differs between NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros (example: NMI Шаблон:Lang vs. Guamanian Шаблон:Lang). In 2021, Guam's Шаблон:Lang (CHamoru Language Commission) released the Шаблон:Lang as the latest spelling standard for the local dialect and place names,[25] whereas NMI Chamorros have yet to develop an official orthography and prefer to spell words phonetically.
Vocabulary
Numbers
Current common Chamorro uses only the number words of Spanish origin: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, etc. Old Chamorro used different number words based on categories: basic numbers (for date, time, etc.), living things, inanimate things, and long objects.
| English | Spanish | Modern Chamorro | Old Chamorro | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Basic Numbers | Living Things | Inanimate Things | Long Objects | |||
| one | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (time) | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| two | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| three | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| four | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| five | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| six | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| seven | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| eight | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| nine | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| ten | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| hundred | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
- The number 10 and its multiples up to 90 are Шаблон:Lang (10), Шаблон:Lang (20), Шаблон:Lang (30), Шаблон:Lang (40), Шаблон:Lang (50), Шаблон:Lang (60), Шаблон:Lang (70), Шаблон:Lang (80), Шаблон:Lang (90). These are similar to the corresponding Spanish terms Шаблон:Lang (10), Шаблон:Lang (20), Шаблон:Lang (30), Шаблон:Lang (40), Шаблон:Lang (50), Шаблон:Lang (60), Шаблон:Lang (70), Шаблон:Lang (80), Шаблон:Lang (90).
Days of the week
Current common Chamorro uses only the days of the week which are Spanish in origin but are spelled and pronounced differently. There is currently an effort by Chamorro language advocates to introduce or re-introduce native terms for the Chamorro days of the week. However, both major dialects differ in the terminology used. Guamanian advocates support a number-based system derived from Old Chamorro numerals, whereas the NMI advocates support a more unique system.
| English | Spanish | Contemporary Chamorro | Modern Chamorro (NMI Dialect) | Modern Chamorro (Guamanian Dialect) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sunday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Day One) | |||
| Monday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (literally means 'day') | Шаблон:Lang (Day Two) | |||
| Tuesday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Day Three) | |||
| Wednesday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Day Four) | |||
| Thursday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Day Five) | |||
| Friday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Day Six) | |||
| Saturday | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang (Day Seven) | |||
Months
Before the Spanish-based 12-month calendar became predominant, the Chamoru 13-month lunar calendar was commonly used. The first month in the left column below corresponds with January.
| No. | Cunningham[26] | ToppingШаблон:Sfn | Kumisión[25] |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 4 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 5 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 6 | Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 7 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 8 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 9 | Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 10 | Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 11 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 12 | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 13 | Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang | --- | Шаблон:Lang |
| No. | English | ToppingШаблон:Sfn | Kumisión[25] |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | January | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 | February | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 | March | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 4 | April | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 5 | May | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 6 | June | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 7 | July | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 8 | August | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 9 | September | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 10 | October | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 11 | November | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 12 | December | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Basic phrases
| Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang (phonetic spelling) | 'Hello!' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced] | 'Greetings' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'How are you? [lit.: Are you doing well?][informal] |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'How are you? [formal]' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'What is your name?' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'My name is Chris.' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'I'm hungry.' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'I'm thirsty.' |
| Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced] | 'Good bye.' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced formal] or Шаблон:Lang [Chamorro informal] | 'please' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Indigenous] | 'leave later [informal]' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced] or Шаблон:Lang (mostly used on Guam) | 'Good morning.' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced] | 'Good afternoon.' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced] or Шаблон:Lang | 'Good night.' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'Until tomorrow' |
| Шаблон:Lang | 'Thank you (lit: God have mercy)' |
| Шаблон:Lang [Spanish introduced] or Шаблон:Lang | 'You're welcome' |
Studies
Chamorro is studied at the University of Guam and in several academic institutions of Guam and the Northern Marianas.
Researchers in several countries are studying aspects of Chamorro. In 2009, the Chamorro Linguistics International Network (CHIN) was established in Bremen, Germany. CHiN was founded on the occasion of the Chamorro Day (27 September 2009) which was part of the programme of the Festival of Languages. The foundation ceremony was attended by people from Germany, Guam, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States of America.[27]
Notes and references
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Further reading
- Aguon, K. B. (1995). Chamorro: A Complete Course of Study. Agana, Guam: K.B. Aguon.
- Шаблон:Cite book
External links
Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:Wikivoyage Шаблон:Wiktionary cat
- Chamorro-English Online Dictionary (chamoru.info homepage)
- Webster's Chamorro-English Online Dictionary (archived version)
- Learn Chamoru! CHamoru sentences, videos by Michael Bevacqua.
- Chamorro lessons
- Chamorro Language Lessons (archived version)
- Chamorro/Chamoru - The Language (archived version)
- Chamorro-English dictionary, partially available at Google Books.
- Chamorro Reference Grammar, partially available at Google Books.
- Chamorro Wordlist at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
- Chamorro Linguistics International Network (CHIN).
- Text and software files from "Chamorro-English Dictionary (PALI Language Texts: Micronesia)" by Donald M. Topping, Pedro M. Ogo, and Bernadita C. Dungca, published in 1975 by University of Hawaii Press archived at Kaipuleohone.
- Index cards of plant and animal names in Chamorro language in Kaipuleohone.
Шаблон:Languages of the United States Шаблон:Oceania topic Шаблон:Austronesian languages
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga, Of Spanish to Chamorro: Language in contact in the Pacific. Madrid, Ediciones Gondo, 2009, www.edicionesgondo.com [1] Шаблон:Webarchive[2] Шаблон:Webarchive
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Skutnabb-Kangas 2000: 206; Mühlhäusler 1996: 109; Benton 1981: 122
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news Шаблон:Dead link
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:CitationШаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Chung 1998:236 and passim
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 25,0 25,1 25,2 25,3 25,4 Шаблон:Cite report
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ The Maga’låhi (president) is Dr. Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga Salamanca (Madrid, Spain); Maga’låhi ni onrao (honorary president): Dr. Robert A. Underwood (president, University of Guam); Teniente maga’låhi (vice-president): Prof. Dr. Thomas Stolz (Universität Bremen).
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