Английская Википедия:Charles I of Anjou
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Charles I (early 1226/1227Шаблон:Snd7 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou or Charles d'Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–1285) and Forcalquier (1246–1248, 1256–1285) in the Holy Roman Empire, Count of Anjou and Maine (1246–1285) in France; he was also King of Sicily (1266–1285) and Prince of Achaea (1278–1285). In 1272, he was proclaimed King of Albania, and in 1277 he purchased a claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
The youngest son of Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile, Charles was destined for a Church career until the early 1240s. He acquired Provence and Forcalquier through his marriage to their heiress, Beatrice. His attempts to restore central authority brought him into conflict with his mother-in-law, Beatrice of Savoy, and the nobility. Charles received Anjou and Maine from his brother, Louis IX of France, in appanage. He accompanied Louis during the Seventh Crusade to Egypt. Shortly after he returned to Provence in 1250, Charles forced three wealthy autonomous cities—Marseille, Arles and Avignon—to acknowledge his suzerainty.
Charles supported Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut, against her eldest son, John, in exchange for Hainaut in 1253. Two years later Louis IX persuaded him to renounce the county, but compensated him by instructing Margaret to pay him 160,000 marks. Charles forced the rebellious Provençal nobles and towns into submission and expanded his suzerainty over a dozen towns and lordships in the Kingdom of Arles. In 1263, after years of negotiations, he accepted the offer of the Holy See to seize the Kingdom of Sicily from the Hohenstaufens. This kingdom included, in addition to the island of Sicily, southern Italy to well north of Naples and was known as the Regno. Pope Urban IV declared a crusade against the incumbent Manfred of Sicily and assisted Charles in raising funds for the military campaign.
Charles was crowned king in Rome on 5 January 1266. He annihilated Manfred's army and occupied the Regno almost without resistance. His victory over Manfred's young nephew, Conradin, at the Battle of Tagliacozzo in 1268 strengthened his rule. In 1270 he took part in the Eighth Crusade organised by Louis IX, and forced the Hafsid Caliph Muhammad I to pay a yearly tribute to him. Charles's victories secured his undisputed leadership among the Papacy's Italian partisans (known as Guelphs), but his influence on papal elections and his strong military presence in Italy disturbed the popes. They tried to channel his ambitions towards other territories and assisted him in acquiring claims to Achaea, Jerusalem and Arles through treaties. In 1281 Pope Martin IV authorised Charles to launch a crusade against the Byzantine Empire. Charles's ships were gathering at Messina, ready to begin the campaign when the Sicilian Vespers rebellion broke out on 30Шаблон:NbsMarch 1282 which put an end to Charles's rule on the island of Sicily. He was able to defend the mainland territories (or the Kingdom of Naples) with the support of France and the Holy See. Charles died while making preparations for an invasion of Sicily.
Early life
Childhood
Charles was the youngest child of King Louis VIII of France and Blanche of Castile.Шаблон:Sfn The date of his birth has not survived, but he was probably born posthumously in early 1227.[note 1]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles was Louis' only surviving son to be "born in the purple" (after his father's coronation), a fact he often emphasised in his youth, as the contemporaneous chronicler Matthew Paris noted in his Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn He was the first Capetian to be named for Charlemagne.Шаблон:Sfn
Louis VIII died in November 1226 and his eldest son, Louis IX, succeeded him. The late King willed that his youngest sons were to be prepared for a career in the Roman Catholic Church.Шаблон:Sfn The details of Charles's tuition are unknown, but he received a good education.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He understood the principal Catholic doctrines and could identify errors in Latin texts.Шаблон:Sfn His passion for poetry, medical sciences, and law is well documented.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Charles later said that his mother had a strong impact on her children's education;Шаблон:Sfn in reality, Blanche was fully engaged in state administration, and could likely spare little time for her youngest children.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles lived at the court of a brother, Robert I, Count of Artois, from 1237.Шаблон:Sfn About four years later he was put into the care of his youngest brother, Alphonse, Count of Poitiers.Шаблон:Sfn His participation in his brothers' military campaign against Hugh X of Lusignan, Count of La Marche, in 1242 showed that he was no longer destined for a Church career.Шаблон:Sfn
Provence and Anjou
Raymond Berengar V of Provence died in August 1245,Шаблон:Sfn bequeathing Provence and Forcalquier to his youngest daughter, Beatrice, allegedly because he had given generous dowries to her three sisters.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The dowries were actually not fully discharged,Шаблон:Sfn causing two of her sisters, Margaret (Louis IX's wife) and Eleanor (the wife of Henry III of England), to believe that they had been unlawfully disinherited.Шаблон:Sfn Their mother, Beatrice of Savoy, claimed that Raymond Berengar had willed the usufruct of Provence to her.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick II (whom Pope Innocent IV had recently excommunicated for his alleged "crimes against the Church"), Count Raymond VII of Toulouse and other neighbouring rulers proposed themselves or their sons as husbands for the young Countess.Шаблон:Sfn Her mother put her under the protection of the Holy See.Шаблон:Sfn Louis IX and Margaret suggested that Beatrice should be given in marriage to Charles.Шаблон:Sfn To secure the support of France against Frederick II, Pope Innocent IV accepted their proposal.Шаблон:Sfn Charles hurried to Aix-en-Provence at the head of an army to prevent other suitors from invading Provence, and married Beatrice on 31Шаблон:NbsJanuary 1246.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Provence was a part of the Kingdom of Arles and so of the Holy Roman Empire,Шаблон:Sfn but Charles never swore fealty to the emperor.Шаблон:Sfn He ordered a survey of the counts' rights and revenues, outraging both his subjects and his mother-in-law, who regarded this action as an attack against her rights.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Being a younger child, destined for a church career, Charles had not received an appanage (a hereditary county or duchy) from his father.Шаблон:Sfn Louis VIII had willed that his fourth son, John, should receive Anjou and Maine upon reaching the age of majority, but John died in 1232.Шаблон:Sfn Louis IX knighted Charles at Melun in May 1246 and three months later bestowed Anjou and Maine on him.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles rarely visited his two counties and appointed baillies (or regents) to administer them.Шаблон:Sfn
While Charles was absent from Provence, Marseille, Arles and Avignon—three wealthy cities, directly subject to the emperor—formed a league and appointed a Provençal nobleman, Barral of Baux, as the commander of their combined armies.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's mother-in-law put the disobedient Provençals under her protection.Шаблон:Sfn Charles could not deal with the rebels as he was about to join his brother's crusade.Шаблон:Sfn To pacify his mother-in-law he acknowledged her right to rule Forcalquier and granted a third of his revenues from Provence to her.Шаблон:Sfn
Seventh Crusade
In December 1244 Louis IX took a vow to lead a crusade.Шаблон:Sfn Ignoring their mother's strong opposition, his three brothers—Robert, Alphonse and Charles—also took the cross.Шаблон:Sfn Preparations for the crusade lasted for years, with the crusaders embarking at Aigues-Mortes on 25Шаблон:NbsAugust 1248.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After spending several months in Cyprus they invaded Egypt on 5Шаблон:NbsJune 1249.Шаблон:Sfn They captured Damietta and decided to attack Cairo in November.Шаблон:Sfn During their advance Louis's biographer Jean de Joinville noted Charles's personal courage which saved dozens of crusaders' lives.Шаблон:Sfn Robert of Artois died fighting against the Egyptians at Al Mansurah. His three brothers survived, but they had to abandon the campaign. While withdrawing from Egypt, they fell into captivity on 6Шаблон:NbsApril 1250.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Egyptians released Louis, Charles and Alphonse in exchange for 800,000 bezants and the surrender of Damietta on 6Шаблон:NbsMay.Шаблон:Sfn During their voyage to Acre,Шаблон:Sfn Charles outraged Louis by gambling while the king was mourning Robert's death.Шаблон:Sfn Louis remained in the Holy Land, but Charles returned to France in October 1250.Шаблон:Sfn
Wider ambitions
Conflicts and consolidation
Charles's officers continued the survey of the counts' rights and revenues in Provence, provoking a new rebellion during his absence.Шаблон:Sfn On his return he applied both diplomacy and military force to deal with them.Шаблон:Sfn The Archbishop of Arles and the Bishop of Digne ceded their secular rights in the two towns to Charles in 1250.Шаблон:Sfn He received military assistance from his brother, Alphonse.Шаблон:Sfn Arles was the first town to surrender to them in April 1251.Шаблон:Sfn In May they forced Avignon to acknowledge their joint rule.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A month later Barral of Baux also capitulated.Шаблон:Sfn Marseilles was the only town to resist for several months, but it also sought peace in July 1252.Шаблон:Sfn Its burghers acknowledged Charles as their lord, but retained their self-governing bodies.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles's officials continued to ascertain his rights,Шаблон:Sfn visiting each town and holding public enquiries to obtain information about all claims.Шаблон:Sfn The count's salt monopoly (or Шаблон:Lang) was introduced in the whole county.Шаблон:Sfn Income from the salt trade made up about 50% of state revenues by the late 1250s.Шаблон:Sfn Charles abolished local tolls and promoted shipbuilding and grain trade.Шаблон:Sfn He ordered the issue of new coins, called Шаблон:Lang, to enable the use of the local currency in smaller transactions.Шаблон:Sfn
Emperor Frederick II, who was also the ruler of Sicily, died in 1250. The Kingdom of Sicily, also known as the Regno, included the island of Sicily and southern Italy nearly as far as Rome. Pope Innocent IV claimed that the Regno had reverted to the Holy See.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope first offered it to Richard of Cornwall, but Richard did not want to fight against Frederick's son, Conrad IV of Germany.Шаблон:Sfn Then the Pope proposed to enfeoff Charles with the kingdom.Шаблон:Sfn Charles sought instructions from Louis IX, who forbade him to accept the offer, because he regarded Conrad as the lawful ruler.Шаблон:Sfn After Charles informed the Holy See on 30Шаблон:NbsOctober 1253 that he would not accept the Regno, the Pope offered it to Edmund of Lancaster.Шаблон:Sfn
Queen Blanche, who had administered France during Louis' crusade,Шаблон:Sfn died on 1Шаблон:NbsDecember 1252.Шаблон:Sfn Louis made Alphonse and Charles co-regents, so that he could remain in the Holy Land.Шаблон:Sfn Margaret II, Countess of Flanders and Hainaut had come into conflict with her son by her first marriage, John of Avesnes.Шаблон:Sfn After her sons by her second marriage were captured in July 1253, she needed foreign assistance to secure their release.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ignoring Louis IX's 1246 ruling that Hainaut should pass to John, she promised the county to Charles.Шаблон:Sfn He accepted the offer and invaded Hainaut, forcing most local noblemen to swear fealty to him.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After his return to France, Louis IX insisted that his ruling was to be respected.Шаблон:Sfn In November 1255 he ordered Charles to restore Hainaut to Margaret, but her sons were obliged to swear fealty to Charles.Шаблон:Sfn Louis also ruled that she was to pay 160,000 marks to Charles over the following 13 years.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles returned to Provence, which had again become restive.Шаблон:Sfn His mother-in-law continued to support the rebellious Boniface of Castellane and his allies, but Louis IX persuaded her to return Forcalquier to Charles and relinquish her claims for a lump sum payment from Charles and a pension from Louis in November 1256.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A coup by Charles's supporters in Marseilles resulted in the surrender of all political powers there to his officials.Шаблон:Sfn Charles continued to expand his power along the borders of Provence in the next four years.Шаблон:Sfn He received territories in the Lower Alps from the Dauphin of Vienne.Шаблон:Sfn Raymond I of Baux, Count of Orange, ceded the title of regent of the Kingdom of Arles to him.Шаблон:Sfn The burghers of Cuneo—a town strategically located on the routes from Provence to Lombardy—sought Charles's protection against Asti in July 1259.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Alba, Cherasco, Savigliano and other nearby towns acknowledged his rule.Шаблон:Sfn The rulers of Mondovì, Ceva, Biandrate and Saluzzo did homage to him.Шаблон:Sfn
Emperor Frederick II's illegitimate son, Manfred, had been crowned king of Sicily in 1258.Шаблон:Sfn After the English barons had announced that they opposed a war against Manfred, Pope Alexander IV annulled the 1253 grant of Sicily to Edmund of Lancaster.Шаблон:Sfn Alexander's successor, Pope Urban IV, was determined to put an end to the Emperor's rule in Italy.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He sent his notary, Albert of Parma, to Paris to negotiate with Louis IX for Charles to be placed on the Sicilian throne.Шаблон:Sfn Charles met with the Pope's envoy in early 1262.Шаблон:Sfn
Taking advantage of Charles's absence, Boniface of Castellane stirred up a new revolt in Provence.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The burghers of Marseilles expelled Charles's officials, but Barral of Baux stopped the spread of the rebellion before Charles's return.Шаблон:Sfn Charles renounced Ventimiglia in favour of the Republic of Genoa to secure her neutrality.Шаблон:Sfn He defeated the rebels and forced Castellane into exile.Шаблон:Sfn The mediation of James I of Aragon brought about a settlement with Marseilles: its fortifications were dismantled and the townspeople surrendered their arms, but the town retained its autonomy.Шаблон:Sfn
Conquest of the Regno
Louis IX decided to support Charles's military campaign in Italy in May 1263.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Urban IV promised to proclaim a crusade against Manfred, while Charles pledged that he would not accept any offices in the Italian towns.Шаблон:Sfn Manfred staged a coup in Rome, but the Guelphs elected Charles senator (or the head of the civil government of Rome).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He accepted the office, at which a group of cardinals requested that the Pope revoke the agreement with him, but the Pope, being otherwise defenceless against Manfred, could not break with Charles.Шаблон:Sfn
In the spring of 1264 Cardinals Simon of Brie and Guy Foulquois were sent to France to reach a compromise and start raising support for the crusade.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles sent troops to Rome to protect the Pope against Manfred's allies.Шаблон:Sfn At Foulquois' request, Charles's sister-in-law Margaret (who had not abandoned her claims to her dowry) pledged that she would not take actions against Charles during his absence.Шаблон:Sfn Foulquois also persuaded the French and Provençal prelates to offer financial support for the crusade.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Pope Urban died before the final agreement was concluded.Шаблон:Sfn Charles made arrangements for his campaign against Sicily during the interregnum; he concluded agreements to secure his army's route across Lombardy and had the leaders of the Provençal rebels executed.Шаблон:Sfn
Foulquois was elected pope in February 1265; he soon confirmed Charles's senatorship and urged him to come to Rome.Шаблон:Sfn Charles agreed that he would hold the Kingdom of Sicily as the popes' vassal for an annual tribute of 8,000 ounces of gold.Шаблон:Sfn He also promised that he would never seek the imperial title.Шаблон:Sfn He embarked at Marseilles on 10Шаблон:NbsMay and landed at Ostia ten days later.Шаблон:Sfn He was installed as senator on 21Шаблон:NbsJune and four cardinals invested him with the Regno a week later.Шаблон:Sfn To finance further military actions he borrowed money from Italian bankers with the Pope's assistance, who had authorised him to pledge Church property.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Five cardinals crowned him king of Sicily on 5Шаблон:NbsJanuary 1266.Шаблон:Sfn The crusaders from France and Provence—reportedly 6,000 fully equipped mounted warriors, 600 mounted bowmen and 20,000 foot-soldiers—arrived in Rome ten days later.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Charles decided to invade southern Italy without delay, because he was unable to finance a lengthy campaign.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He left Rome on 20Шаблон:NbsJanuary 1266.Шаблон:Sfn He marched towards Naples, but changed his strategy after learning of a muster of Manfred's forces near Capua.Шаблон:Sfn He led his troops across the Apennines towards Benevento.Шаблон:Sfn Manfred also hurried to the town and reached it before Charles.Шаблон:Sfn Worried that further delays might endanger his subjects' loyalty, Manfred attacked Charles's army, then in disarray from the crossing of the hills, on 26Шаблон:NbsFebruary 1266.Шаблон:Sfn In the ensuing battle, Manfred's army was defeated and he was killed.Шаблон:Sfn
Resistance throughout the Regno collapsedШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and towns surrendered even before Charles's troops reached them.Шаблон:Sfn The Saracens of Lucera—a Muslim colony established during Frederick II's reignШаблон:Sfn—paid homage to him.Шаблон:Sfn His commander, Philip of Montfort, took control of the island of Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn Manfred's widow, Helena of Epirus, and their children were captured.Шаблон:Sfn Charles laid claim to her dowry—the island of Corfu and the region of Durazzo (now Durrës in Albania)—by right of conquest.Шаблон:Sfn His troops seized Corfu before the end of the year.Шаблон:Sfn
Conradin
Charles was lenient with Manfred's supporters, but they did not believe that this conciliatory policy could last.Шаблон:Sfn They knew that he had promised to return estates to the Guelph lords expelled from the Regno.Шаблон:Sfn Neither could Charles gain the commoners' loyalty, partly because he continued enforcing the Шаблон:Lang despite the popes declaring it an illegal charge.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He introduced a ban on the use of foreign currency in large transactions and made a profit of the compulsory exchange of foreign coinage for locally minted currency.Шаблон:Sfn He also traded in grain, spices and sugar, through a joint venture with Pisan merchants.Шаблон:Sfn
Pope Clement censured Charles for his methods of state administration, describing him as an arrogant and obstinate monarch.Шаблон:Sfn The consolidation of Charles's power in northern Italy also alarmed Clement.Шаблон:Sfn To appease the Pope, Charles resigned his senatorship in May 1267.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His successors, Conrad Monaldeschi and Luca Savelli, demanded the re-payment of the money that Charles and the Pope had borrowed from the Romans.Шаблон:Sfn
Victories by the Ghibellines, the imperial family's supporters, forced the Pope to ask Charles to send his troops to Tuscany.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's troops ousted the Ghibellines from Florence in April 1267.Шаблон:Sfn After being elected the Шаблон:Lang (ruler) of Florence and Lucca for seven years, Charles hurried to Tuscany.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's expansionism along the Papal States' borders alarmed Pope Clement and he decided to change the direction of Charles's ambitions.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope summoned him to Viterbo, forcing him to promise that he would abandon all claims to Tuscany in three years.Шаблон:Sfn He persuaded Charles to conclude agreements with William of Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea, and the titular Latin Emperor[note 2] Baldwin II in late May.Шаблон:Sfn According to the first treaty, Villehardouin acknowledged Charles's suzerainty and made Charles's younger son, Philip, his heir, also stipulating that Charles would inherit Achaea if Philip died childless.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Baldwin confirmed the first agreement and renounced his claims to suzerainty over his vassals in favour of Charles.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles pledged that he would assist Baldwin in recapturing Constantinople from the Byzantine emperor, Michael VIII Palaiologos, in exchange for one third of the conquered lands.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Charles returned to Tuscany and laid siege to the fortress of Poggibonsi, but it did not fall until the end of November.Шаблон:Sfn Manfred's staunchest supporters had meanwhile fled to Bavaria to attempt to persuade Conrad IV's 15-year-old son Conradin to assert his hereditary right to the Kingdom of Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn After Conradin accepted their proposal, Manfred's former vicar in Sicily, Conrad Capece, returned to the island and stirred up a revolt.Шаблон:Sfn At Capece's request Muhammad I al-Mustansir, the Hafsid caliph of Tunis,Шаблон:Sfn allowed Manfred's former ally, Frederick of Castile, to invade Sicily from North Africa.Шаблон:Sfn Frederick's brother, Henry—who had been elected senator of Rome—also offered support to Conradin.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Henry had been Charles's friend, but Charles had failed to repay a loan to him.Шаблон:Sfn
Conradin left Bavaria in September 1267.Шаблон:Sfn His supporters' revolt was spreading from Sicily to Calabria; the Saracens of Lucera also rose up.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Pope Clement urged Charles to return to the Regno, but he continued his campaign in Tuscany until March 1268, when he met with the Pope.Шаблон:Sfn In April, the Pope made Charles imperial vicar of Tuscany "during the vacancy of the empire", a move of dubious legality.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles marched to southern Italy and laid siege to Lucera, but he then had to hurry north to prevent Conradin's invasion of Abruzzo in late August.Шаблон:Sfn At the Battle of Tagliacozzo, on 23Шаблон:NbsAugust 1268, it appeared that Conradin had won the day, but a sudden charge by Charles's reserve routed Conradin's army.Шаблон:Sfn
The burghers of Potenza, Aversa and other towns in Basilicata and Apulia massacred their fellows who had agitated on Conradin's behalf, but the Sicilians and the Saracens of Lucera did not surrender.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles marched to Rome where he was again elected senator in September.Шаблон:Sfn He appointed new officials to administer justice and collect state revenues.Шаблон:Sfn New coins bearing his name were struck.Шаблон:Sfn During the following decade, Rome was ruled by Charles's vicars, each appointed for one year.Шаблон:Sfn
Conradin was captured at Torre Astura.Шаблон:Sfn Most of his retainers were summarily executed, but Conradin and his friend, Frederick I, Margrave of Baden, were brought to trial for robbery and treason in Naples.Шаблон:Sfn They were sentenced to death and beheaded on 29Шаблон:NbspOctober.Шаблон:Sfn Conrad of Antioch was Conradin's only partisan to be released, but only after his wife threatened to execute the Guelph lords she held captive in her castle.Шаблон:Sfn The Ghibelline noblemen of the Regno fled to the court of Peter III of Aragon, who had married Manfred's daughter, Constance.Шаблон:Sfn
Mediterranean empire
Italy
Charles's wife, Beatrice of Provence, had died in July 1267. The widowed Charles married Margaret of Nevers in November 1268.Шаблон:Sfn She was co-heiress to her father, Odo, the eldest son of Hugh IV, Duke of Burgundy.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Clement died on 29Шаблон:NbsNovember 1268.Шаблон:Sfn The papal vacancy lasted for three years, which strengthened Charles's authority in Italy, but it also deprived him of the ecclesiastic support that only a pope could provide.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Charles returned to Lucera to personally direct its siege in April 1269.Шаблон:Sfn The Saracens and the Ghibellines who had escaped to the townШаблон:Sfn resisted until starvation forced them to surrender in August 1269.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles sent Philip and Guy of Montfort to Sicily to force the rebels there into submission, but they could only capture Augusta.Шаблон:Sfn Charles made William l'Estandart the commander of the army in Sicily in August 1269.Шаблон:Sfn L'Estandart captured Agrigento, forcing Frederick of Castile and Frederick Lancia to seek refuge in Tunis.Шаблон:Sfn After L'Estandart's subsequent victory at Sciacca, only Capece resisted, but he also had to surrender in early 1270.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles's troops forced Siena and Pisa—the last towns to resist him in Tuscany—to sue for peace in August 1270.Шаблон:Sfn He granted privileges to the Tuscan merchants and bankers which strengthened their position in the Regno.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His influence was declining in Lombardy, because the Lombard towns no longer feared an invasion from Germany after Conradin's death.Шаблон:Sfn In May 1269 Charles sent Walter of La Roche to represent him in the province, but this failed to strengthen his authority.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In October Charles's officials convoked an assembly at Cremona, and invited the Lombard towns to attend.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Lombard towns accepted the invitation, but some towns—Milan, Bologna, Alessandria and Tortona—only confirmed their alliance with Charles, without acknowledging his rule.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Eighth Crusade
Louis IX never abandoned the idea of the liberation of Jerusalem, but he decided to begin his new crusade with a military campaign against Tunis.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to his confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, Louis was convinced that al-Mustansir of Tunis was ready to convert to Christianity.Шаблон:Sfn The 13th-century historian Saba Malaspina stated that Charles persuaded Louis to attack Tunis, because he wanted to secure the payment of the tribute that the rulers of Tunis had paid to the former Sicilian monarchs.Шаблон:Sfn
The French crusaders embarked at Aigues-Mortes on 2Шаблон:NbsJuly 1270; Charles departed from Naples six days later.Шаблон:Sfn He spent more than a month in Sicily, waiting for his fleet.Шаблон:Sfn By the time he landed at Tunis on 25Шаблон:NbsAugust,Шаблон:Sfn dysentery and typhoid fever had decimated the French army.Шаблон:Sfn Louis died the day Charles arrived.Шаблон:Sfn
The crusaders twice defeated Al-Mustansir's army, forcing him to sue for peace.Шаблон:Sfn According to the peace treaty, signed on 1Шаблон:NbsNovember, Al-Mustansir agreed to fully compensate Louis' son and successor, Philip III of France, and Charles for the expenses of the military campaign and to release his Christian prisoners.Шаблон:Sfn He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to Charles and to expel Charles's opponents from Tunis.Шаблон:Sfn The gold from Tunis, along with silver from the newly opened mine at Longobucco, enabled Charles to mint new coins, known as Шаблон:Lang, in the Regno.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles and Philip departed Tunis on 10Шаблон:NbsNovember.Шаблон:Sfn A storm dispersed their fleet at Trapani and most of Charles's galleys were lost or damaged.Шаблон:Sfn Genoese ships returning from the crusade were also sunk or forced to land in Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn Charles seized the damaged ships and their cargo, ignoring all protests from the Ghibelline authorities of Genoa.Шаблон:Sfn Before leaving Sicily he granted temporary tax concessions to the Sicilians, because he realised that the conquest of the island had caused much destruction.Шаблон:Sfn
Attempts to expand
Charles accompanied Philip III as far as Viterbo in March 1271.Шаблон:Sfn Here they failed to convince the cardinals to elect a new pope.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's brother, Alphonse of Poitiers, fell ill.Шаблон:Sfn Charles sent his best doctors to cure him, but Alphonse died.Шаблон:Sfn He claimed the major part of Alphonse's inheritance, including the Marquisate of Provence and the County of Poitiers, because he was Alphonse's nearest kin.Шаблон:Sfn After Philip III objected, he took the case to the Parlement of Paris.Шаблон:Sfn In 1284 the court ruled that appanages escheated to the French crown if their rulers died without descendants.Шаблон:Sfn
An earthquake destroyed the walls of Durazzo in the late 1260s or early 1270s.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles's troops took possession of the town with the assistance of the leaders of the nearby Albanian communities.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles concluded an agreement with the Albanian chiefs, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties in February 1272.Шаблон:Sfn He adopted the title of King of Albania and appointed Gazzo Chinardo as his vicar-general.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He also sent his fleet to Achaea to defend the principality against Byzantine attacks.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles hurried to Rome to attend the enthronement of Pope Gregory X on 27Шаблон:NbsMarch 1272.Шаблон:Sfn The new pope was determined to put an end to the conflicts between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines.Шаблон:Sfn While in Rome Charles met with the Guelph leaders who had been exiled from Genoa.Шаблон:Sfn After they offered him the office of captain of the people, Charles promised military assistance to them.Шаблон:Sfn In November 1272 Charles commanded his officials to take prisoner all Genoese within his territories, except for the Guelphs, and to seize their property.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His fleet occupied Ajaccio in Corsica.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Gregory condemned his aggressive policy, but proposed that the Genoese should elect Guelph officials.Шаблон:Sfn Ignoring the Pope's proposal, the Genoese made alliance with Alfonso X of Castile, William VII of Montferrat and the Ghibelline towns of Lombardy in October 1273.Шаблон:Sfn
The conflict with Genoa prevented Charles from invading the Byzantine Empire, but he continued to forge alliances in the Balkan Peninsula.Шаблон:Sfn The Bulgarian ruler, Konstantin Tih, was the first to conclude a treaty with him in 1272 or 1273.Шаблон:Sfn John I Doukas of Thessaly and Stefan Uroš I, King of Serbia, joined the coalition in 1273.Шаблон:Sfn However, Pope Gregory forbade Charles to attack, because he hoped to unify the Orthodox and Catholic churches with the assistance of Emperor Michael VIII.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The renowned theologian Thomas Aquinas died unexpectedly near Naples on 7Шаблон:NbsMarch 1274, before departing to attend the Second Council of Lyon.Шаблон:Sfn According to a popular legend, immortalised by Dante Alighieri, Charles had him poisoned, because he feared that Aquinas would make complaint against him.Шаблон:Sfn The historian Steven Runciman emphasises that "there is no evidence for supposing that the great doctor's death was not natural".Шаблон:Sfn Southern Italian churchmen at the council accused Charles of tyrannical acts.Шаблон:Sfn Their report reinforced the Pope's attempt to reach a compromise with Rudolf of Habsburg, who had been elected king of Germany by the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire.Шаблон:Sfn In June, the Pope acknowledged Rudolf as the lawful ruler of both Germany and Italy.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's sisters-in-law, Margaret and Eleanor, approached Rudolf, claiming that they had been unlawfully disinherited in favour of Charles's late wife.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Michael VIII's personal envoy announced at the Council of Lyon on 6Шаблон:NbsJuly that he had accepted the Catholic creed and papal primacy.Шаблон:Sfn About three weeks later, Pope Gregory again prohibited Charles from launching military actions against the Byzantine Empire.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope also tried to mediate a truce between Charles and Michael, but the latter chose to attack several smaller states in the Balkans, including Charles's vassals.Шаблон:Sfn The Byzantine fleet took control of the maritime routes between Albania and southern Italy in the late 1270s.Шаблон:Sfn Gregory only allowed Charles to send reinforcements to Achaea.Шаблон:Sfn The organisation of a new crusade to the Holy Land remained the Pope's principal object.Шаблон:Sfn He persuaded Charles to start negotiations with Maria of Antioch about purchasing her claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem.Шаблон:Sfn The High Court of Jerusalem had already rejected her in favour of Hugh III of Cyprus,Шаблон:Sfn but the Pope had a low opinion of Hugh.Шаблон:Sfn
The war with Genoa and the Lombard towns increasingly occupied Charles's attention.Шаблон:Sfn He appointed his nephew Robert II of Artois as his deputy in Piedmont in October 1274, but Artois could not prevent Vercelli and Alessandria from joining the Ghibelline League.Шаблон:Sfn The following summer, a Genoese fleet plundered Trapani and the island of Gozo.Шаблон:Sfn Convinced that only Rudolf I could achieve a compromise between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Pope urged the Lombard towns to send envoys to him.Шаблон:Sfn He also urged Charles to renounce Tuscany.Шаблон:Sfn In the autumn of 1275 the Ghibellines offered to make peace with Charles, but he did not accept their terms.Шаблон:Sfn Early the next year the Ghibellines defeated his troops at Col de Tende, forcing them to withdraw to Provence.Шаблон:Sfn
Papal elections
Pope Gregory X died on 10Шаблон:NbsJanuary 1276.Шаблон:Sfn After the hostility he experienced during Gregory's pontificate, Charles was determined to secure the election of a pope willing to support his plans.Шаблон:Sfn Gregory's successor, Pope Innocent V, had always been Charles's partisan and he rapidly confirmed Charles as senator of Rome and imperial vicar of Tuscany.Шаблон:Sfn He also mediated a peace treaty between Charles and Genoa,Шаблон:Sfn which was signed in Rome on 22Шаблон:NbsJune 1276.Шаблон:Sfn Charles restored the privileges of the Genoese merchants and renounced his conquests, and the Genoese acknowledged his rule in Ventimiglia.Шаблон:Sfn
Pope Innocent died on 30Шаблон:NbsJune 1276.Шаблон:Sfn After the cardinals assembled in the Lateran Palace, Charles's troops surrounded it, enabling only his allies to communicate with other cardinals and with outsiders.Шаблон:Sfn On 11Шаблон:NbsJuly the cardinals elected Charles's old friend, Ottobuono de' Fieschi, pope, but he died on 18Шаблон:NbsAugust.Шаблон:Sfn The cardinals met again, this time at Viterbo.Шаблон:Sfn Although Charles was staying in the nearby Vetralla, he could not directly influence the election, because his vehement opponent, Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, dominated the papal conclave.Шаблон:Sfn Pope John XXI, who was elected on 20Шаблон:NbsSeptember, excommunicated Charles's opponents in Piedmont and prohibited Rudolf from coming to Lombardy, but did not forbid the Lombardian Guelph leaders swearing fealty to Rudolf.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope also confirmed the treaty concluded by Charles and Maria of Antioch on 18Шаблон:NbsMarch which transferred her claims to Jerusalem to Charles for 1,000 bezants and a pension of 4,000 Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Charles appointed Roger of San Severino to administer the Kingdom of Jerusalem as his bailiff.Шаблон:Sfn San Severino landed at Acre on 7Шаблон:NbsJune 1277.Шаблон:Sfn Hugh III's bailiff, Balian of Arsuf, surrendered the town without resistance.Шаблон:Sfn Although initially only the Knights Hospitaller and the Venetians acknowledged Charles as the lawful ruler, the barons of the realm also paid homage to San Severino in January 1278, after he had threatened to confiscate their estates.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Mamluks of Egypt had already confined the kingdom to a coastal strip covering Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn and Charles had ordered San Severino to avoid conflicts with Egypt.Шаблон:Sfn
Pope John died on 20Шаблон:NbsMay 1277.Шаблон:Sfn Charles was ill and could not prevent the election of Giovanni Gaetano Orsini as Pope Nicholas III on 25Шаблон:NbsNovember.Шаблон:Sfn The Pope soon declared that no foreign prince could rule in RomeШаблон:Sfn and reminded Charles that he had been elected senator for ten years.Шаблон:Sfn Charles swore fealty to the new pope on 24Шаблон:NbsMay 1278 after lengthy negotiations.Шаблон:Sfn He had to pledge that he would renounce both the senatorship of Rome and the vicariate of Tuscany in four months.Шаблон:Sfn On the other hand, Nicholas III confirmed the excommunication of Charles's enemies in Piedmont and started negotiations with Rudolf to prevent him from making an alliance against Charles with Margaret of Provence and her nephew, Edward I of England.Шаблон:Sfn The negotiations with Rudolf lay behind Nicholas' refusal to renew Charles's vicariate in Tuscany, to which Rudolf had appointed his own vicar.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles announced his resignation from the senatorship and the vicariate on 30Шаблон:NbsAugust 1278.Шаблон:Sfn He was succeeded by the Pope's brother, Matteo Orsini, in Rome, and by the Pope's nephew, Cardinal Latino Malabranca, in Tuscany.Шаблон:Sfn To ensure that Charles fully abandoned his ambitions in central Italy the Pope started negotiations with Rudolf about the restoration of the Kingdom of Arles for Charles's grandson, Charles Martel.Шаблон:Sfn Margaret of Provence sharply opposed the plan, but Philip III of France did not stand by his mother.Шаблон:Sfn After lengthy negotiations, in the summer of 1279 Rudolf recognised Charles as the lawful ruler of Provence without demanding his oath of fealty.Шаблон:Sfn An agreement about Charles Martel's rule in Arles and his marriage to Rudolf's daughter, Clemence, was signed in May 1280.Шаблон:Sfn The plan disturbed the rulers of the lands along the Upper Rhone, especially Duke Robert II and Count Otto IV of Burgundy.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles had meanwhile inherited the Principality of Achaea from William II of Villehardouin, who had died on 1Шаблон:NbsMay 1278.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He appointed the unpopular Шаблон:Lang of Sicily, Galeran of Ivry, as his baillif in Achaea.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Galeran could not pay his troops who started to pillage the peasants' homes.Шаблон:Sfn John I de la Roche, Duke of Athens, had to lend money to him to finance their salaries.Шаблон:Sfn Nicephoros I of Epirus acknowledged Charles's suzerainty on 14Шаблон:NbsMarch 1279 to secure his assistance against the Byzantines.Шаблон:Sfn Nicephoros also ceded three towns—Butrinto, Sopotos and Panormos—to Charles.Шаблон:Sfn
Pope Nicholas died on 22Шаблон:NbsAugust 1280.Шаблон:Sfn Charles sent agents to Viterbo to promote the election of one of his supporters, taking advantage of the rift between the late Pope's relatives and other Italian cardinals.Шаблон:Sfn When a riot broke out in Viterbo, after the cardinals had not reached a decision for months, Charles's troops took control of the town.Шаблон:Sfn On 22Шаблон:NbsFebruary 1281 his staunchest supporter, Simon of Brie, was elected pope.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Martin IV dismissed his predecessor's relatives and made Charles the senator of Rome again.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Guido I da Montefeltro rose up against the Pope, but Charles's troops under Jean d'Eppe stopped the spread of the rebellion at Forlì.Шаблон:Sfn Charles also sent an army to Piedmont, but Thomas I, Marquess of Saluzzo, annihilated it at Borgo San Dalmazzo in May.Шаблон:Sfn
End of the Church union
Pope Martin excommunicated Emperor Michael VIII on 10Шаблон:NbsApril 1281 because the Emperor had not imposed the Church union in his empire.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Pope soon authorised Charles to invade the empire.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's vicar in Albania, Hugh of Sully, had already laid siege to the Byzantine fortress of Berat.Шаблон:Sfn A Byzantine army of relief under Michael Tarchaneiotes and John Synadenos arrived in March 1281.Шаблон:Sfn Sully was ambushed and captured, his army put to flight and the interior of Albania was lost to the Byzantines.Шаблон:Sfn On 3Шаблон:NbsJuly 1281 Charles and his son-in-law, Philip of Courtenay, the titular Latin emperor, made an alliance with Venice "for the restoration of the Roman Empire".Шаблон:Sfn They decided to start a full-scale campaign early the next year.Шаблон:Sfn
Margaret of Provence called Robert and Otto of Burgundy and other lords who held fiefs in the Kingdom of Arles to a meeting at Troyes in the autumn of 1281.Шаблон:Sfn They were willing to unite their troops to prevent Charles's army from taking possession of the kingdom, but Philip III of France strongly opposed his mother's plan and Edward I of England would not promise any assistance to them.Шаблон:Sfn Charles acknowledged that his wife held the County of Tonnerre and her other inherited estates as a Burgundian fief, which appeased Robert of Burgundy.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's ships started to assemble at Marseilles to sail up the Rhone in the spring of 1282.Шаблон:Sfn Another fleet was gathering at Messina to start the crusade against the Byzantine Empire.Шаблон:Sfn
The empire's collapse
Sicilian Vespers
Always in need of funds, Charles could not cancel the Шаблон:Lang, although it was the most unpopular tax in the Regno.Шаблон:Sfn Instead he granted exemptions to individuals and communities, especially to the French and Provençal colonists, which increased the burden on those who did not enjoy such privileges.Шаблон:Sfn The yearly, or occasionally more frequent, obligatory exchange of the Шаблон:Lang—the coins almost exclusively used in local transactions—was also an important, and unpopular, source of revenue for the royal treasury.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles took out forced loans whenever he needed "immediately a large sum of money for certain arduous and pressing business", as he explained in one of his decrees.Шаблон:Sfn
Purveyances, the requisitioning of goods, increased the unpopularity of Charles's government in southern Italy and Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn His subjects were also liable to be forced to guard prisoners or lodge soldiers in their homes.Шаблон:Sfn The restoration of old fortresses, bridges and aqueducts and the building of new castles required the employment of craftsmen, although most of them were unwilling to participate in such lengthy projects.Шаблон:Sfn Thousands of people were forced to serve in the army in foreign lands, especially after 1279.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Trading in salt was declared a royal monopoly.Шаблон:Sfn In December 1281, Charles again ordered the collection of the Шаблон:Lang, requiring the payment of 150 per cent of the customary amount.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles did not pay attention to the island of Sicily, although it had been the centre of resistance against him in 1268.Шаблон:Sfn He transferred the capital from Palermo to Naples.Шаблон:Sfn He did not visit the island after 1271, preventing Sicilians from directly informing him of their grievances.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Sicilian noblemen were seldom employed as royal officials, although he often appointed their southern Italian peers to represent him in his other realms.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, having seized large estates on the island in the late 1260s Charles almost exclusively employed French and Provençal clerics to administer them.Шаблон:Sfn
Popular stories credited John of Procida—Manfred of Sicily's former chancellor—with staging an international plot against Charles.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Legend says that he visited Constantinople, Sicily and Viterbo in disguise in 1279 and 1280 to convince Michael VIII, the Sicilian barons and Pope Nicholas III to support a revolt.Шаблон:Sfn On the other hand, Michael VIII would later claim that he "was God's instrument in bringing freedom to the Sicilians" in his memoirs.Шаблон:Sfn The Emperor's wealth enabled him to send money to the discontented Sicilian barons.Шаблон:Sfn Peter III of Aragon decided to lay claim to the Kingdom of Sicily in late 1280: he did not hide his disdain when he met with Charles's son, Charles, Duke of Salerno, in Toulouse in December 1280.Шаблон:Sfn He began to assemble a fleet, ostensibly for another crusade to Tunis.Шаблон:Sfn
Rioting broke out in Sicily after a burgher of Palermo killed a drunken French soldier who had insulted his wife before the Church of the Holy Spirit on Easter Monday (30Шаблон:NbsMarch),Шаблон:Sfn 1282.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn When the soldier's comrades attacked the murderer, the mob turned against them and started to massacre all the French in the town.Шаблон:Sfn The riot, known since the 16th century as the Sicilian Vespers,Шаблон:Sfn developed into an uprising and most of Charles's officials were killed or forced to flee the island.Шаблон:Sfn Charles ordered the transfer of soldiers and ships from Achaea to Sicily, but could not stop the spread of the revolt to Calabria.Шаблон:Sfn San Severino also had to return to Italy, accompanied by the major part of the garrison at Acre.Шаблон:Sfn Odo Poilechien, who succeeded him in Acre, had limited authority.Шаблон:Sfn
The burghers of the major Sicilian towns established communes which sent delegates to Pope Martin, asking him to take them under the protection of the Holy See.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Instead of accepting their offer, the Pope excommunicated the rebels on 7Шаблон:NbsMay.Шаблон:Sfn Charles issued an edict on 10Шаблон:NbsJune, accusing his officials of having ignored his instructions on good administration, but he failed to promise fundamental changes.Шаблон:Sfn In July he sailed to Sicily and laid siege to Messina.Шаблон:Sfn
War with Aragon
Шаблон:Main Peter III of Aragon's envoy, William of Castelnou, started negotiations with the rebels' leaders in Palermo.Шаблон:Sfn Realizing that they could not resist without foreign support, they acknowledged Peter and Constance as their king and queen.Шаблон:Sfn They appointed envoys to accompany Castelnou to Collo where the Aragonese fleet was assembling.Шаблон:Sfn After a short hesitation, Peter decided to intervene on the rebels' behalf and sailed to Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn He was declared king of Sicily at Palermo on 4Шаблон:NbsSeptember.Шаблон:Sfn Thereafter two realms, each ruled by a monarch styled king (or queen) of Sicily, coexisted for more than a century, with Charles and his successors ruling in southern Italy (known as the Kingdom of Naples) while Peter and his descendants ruled the island of Sicily.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In the face of the Aragonese landing, Charles was compelled to withdraw from the island, but the Aragonese moved swiftly and destroyed part of his army and most of his baggage.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Peter took control of the whole island and sent troops to Calabria, but they could not prevent Charles of Salerno from leading an army of 600 French knights to join his father at Reggio Calabria.Шаблон:Sfn Further French troops arrived under the command of Charles's nephews, Robert II of Artois and Peter of Alençon, in November.Шаблон:Sfn In the same month, the Pope excommunicated Peter.Шаблон:Sfn
Neither Peter nor Charles could afford to wage a lengthy war.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles made an astonishing proposal in late December 1282, challenging Peter to a judicial duel.Шаблон:Sfn Peter insisted that the war should be continued, but agreed that a battle between the two kings, each accompanied by 100 knights, should decide the possession of Sicily.Шаблон:Sfn The duel was set to take place at Bordeaux on 1Шаблон:NbsJune 1283, but they did not fix the hour.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Charles appointed Charles of Salerno to administer the Regno during his absence.Шаблон:Sfn To secure the loyalty of the local lords in Achaea, he made one of their peers, Guy of Dramelay, baillif.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Martin declared the war against the Sicilians a crusade on 13Шаблон:NbsJanuary 1283.Шаблон:Sfn Charles met with the Pope in Viterbo on 9 March, but he ignored the Pope's ban on his duel with Peter of Aragon.Шаблон:Sfn After visiting Provence and Paris in April, he left for Bordeaux to meet with Peter.Шаблон:Sfn The duel turned into a farce; the two kings each arriving at different times on the same day, declaring a victory over their absent opponent, and departing.Шаблон:Sfn
Skirmishes and raids continued to occur in southern Italy.Шаблон:Sfn Aragonese guerrillas attacked Catona and killed Peter of Alençon in January 1283; the Aragonese seized Reggio Calabria in February; and the Sicilian admiral, Roger of Lauria, defeated a newly raised Provençal fleet at Malta in April.Шаблон:Sfn However, tensions arose between the Aragonese and the Sicilians and in May 1283 one of the leaders of the anti-Angevin rebellion, Walter of Caltagirone, was executed for his secret correspondence with Charles's agents.Шаблон:Sfn Pope Martin declared the war against Aragon a crusade and conferred the kingdom upon Philip III of France's son, Charles of Valois, on 2Шаблон:NbsFebruary 1284.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles started to raise new troops and a fleet in Provence, and instructed his son, Charles of Salerno, to maintain a defensive posture until his return.Шаблон:Sfn Roger of Lauria based a small squadron on the island of Nisida to blockade Naples in May 1284.Шаблон:Sfn Charles of Salerno attempted to destroy the squadron, but most of his fleet was captured, and he himself was taken prisoner after a short, sharp fight on 5Шаблон:NbsJune.Шаблон:Sfn News of the reverse caused a riot in Naples, but the papal legate, Gerard of Parma, crushed it with the assistance of local noblemen.Шаблон:Sfn Charles learnt of the disaster when he landed at Gaeta on 6Шаблон:NbsJune.Шаблон:Sfn He was furious at Charles of Salerno and his disobedience.Шаблон:Sfn He allegedly stated that "Who loses a fool loses nothing", referring to his son's capture.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles left Naples for Calabria on 24Шаблон:NbsJune 1284.Шаблон:Sfn A large army—reportedly 10,000 mounted warriors and 40,000 foot-soldiers—accompanied him as far as Reggio Calabria.Шаблон:Sfn He laid siege to the town by sea and land in late July.Шаблон:Sfn His fleet approached the coast of Sicily, but his troops could not land in the island.Шаблон:Sfn After Lauria landed troops near Reggio Calabria, Charles had to lift the siege and retreat from Calabria on 3Шаблон:NbsAugust.Шаблон:Sfn
Death
Charles went to Brindisi and made preparations for a campaign against Sicily in the new year.Шаблон:Sfn He dispatched orders to his officials for the collection of the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn However, he fell seriously ill before travelling to Foggia on 30Шаблон:NbsDecember.Шаблон:Sfn He made his last will on 6Шаблон:NbsJanuary 1285, appointing Robert II of Artois regent for his grandson, Charles Martel, who was to rule his realms until Charles of Salerno was released.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He died in the morning of 7Шаблон:NbsJanuary.Шаблон:Sfn He was buried in a marble sepulchre in Naples, but his heart was placed at the Couvent Saint-Jacques in Paris.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His corpse was moved to a chapel of the newly built Naples Cathedral in 1296.Шаблон:Sfn
Family
Шаблон:Family tree/start Шаблон:Tree chart Шаблон:Tree chart Шаблон:Tree chart Шаблон:Tree chart Шаблон:Tree chart Шаблон:Tree chart Шаблон:Family tree/end
All records show that Charles was a faithful husband and a caring father.Шаблон:Sfn His first wife, Beatrice of Provence, gave birth to at least six children.Шаблон:Sfn According to contemporaneous gossips, she persuaded Charles to claim the Kingdom of Sicily, because she wanted to wear a crown like her sisters.Шаблон:Sfn Before she died in July 1267,Шаблон:Sfn she had willed the usufruct of Provence to Charles.Шаблон:Sfn
- Blanche, the eldest daughter of Charles and Beatrice, became the wife of Robert of Béthune in 1265, but she died four years later.Шаблон:Sfn
- Beatrice, her younger sister, married Philip, the titular Latin emperor, in 1273.Шаблон:Sfn
- Charles II, Charles's eldest son and namesake was granted the Principality of Salerno in 1272.Шаблон:Sfn Charles the Lame (as he was called) and his wife, Maria of Hungary, had fourteen children, which secured the survival of the Capetian House of Anjou.Шаблон:Sfn
- Philip, Charles and Beatrice's next son, was elected king of Sardinia by the local Guelphs in 1269, but without the pope's consent.Шаблон:Sfn He died childless in 1278.Шаблон:Sfn
- Robert, Charles's third son, died in 1265.Шаблон:Sfn
- Elisabeth, Charles's youngest daughter, was given in marriage to the future Ladislaus IV of Hungary in 1269, but Ladislaus preferred his mistresses to her.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The widowed Charles first proposed himself to Margaret of Hungary.Шаблон:Sfn However, Margaret, who had been brought up in a Dominican nunnery, did not want to marry.Шаблон:Sfn According to legend, she disfigured herself to prevent the marriage.Шаблон:Sfn Charles and his second wife, Margaret of Nevers, had several children, but none survived to adulthood.Шаблон:Sfn
Legacy
The works of two 13th-century historians, Bartholomaeus of Neocastro and Saba Malaspina, strongly influenced modern views about Charles, although they were biased.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The former described Charles as a tyrant to justify the Sicilian Vespers, the latter argued for the cancellation of the crusade against Aragon in 1285.Шаблон:Sfn Charles had continued his imperial predecessors' policies in several fields, including coinage, taxation, and the employment of unpopular officials from Amalfi.Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, the monarchy underwent a "Frenchification" or "Provençalistion" during his reign.Шаблон:Sfn He donated estates in the Regno to about 700 noblemen from France or Provence.Шаблон:Sfn He did not adopt the rich ceremonial robes, inspired by Byzantine and Islamic royal styles, of earlier Sicilian kings, but dressed like other western European monarchs,Шаблон:Sfn or as "a simple knight", as it was observed by the chronicler Thomas Tuscus who visited Naples in 1267.Шаблон:Sfn
Around 1310, the Florentine historian, Giovanni Villani, stated that Charles had been the most powerful Christian monarch in the late 1270s.Шаблон:Sfn Luchetto Gattilusio, a Genoese poet, compared Charles directly with Charlemagne.Шаблон:Sfn Both reports demonstrate that Charles was regarded almost as an emperor.Шаблон:Sfn Among modern historians, Runciman says that Charles tried to build an empire in the eastern Mediterraneum;Шаблон:Sfn Gérard Sivéry writes that he wanted to dominate the west; and Jean Dunbabin argues that his "agglomeration of lands was in the process of forming an empire".Шаблон:Sfn
The historian Hiroshi Takayama concludes that Charles's dominion "was too large to control".Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, economic links among his realms strengthened during his reign.Шаблон:Sfn Provençal salt was transported to his other lands, grain from the Regno was sold in Achaea, Albania, Acre and Tuscany, and Tuscan merchants settled in Anjou, Maine, Sicily and Naples.Шаблон:Sfn His highest-ranking officials were transferred from their homelands to represent him in other territories: his senechals in Provence were from Anjou; French and Provençal noblemen held the highest offices in the Regno; and he chose his vicars in Rome from among southern Italian and Provençal nobles.Шаблон:Sfn Although his empire collapsed before his death, his son retained southern Italy and Provence.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles always emphasised his royal rank, but did not adopt "imperial rhetoric".Шаблон:Sfn His renowned justiciar, Marino de Caramanico, developed a new political theory. Traditional interpretators of Roman law were convinced that the Holy Roman Emperors had a monopoly on law-making. In contrast with them, Caramanico stated that an emperor could not claim sovereignty over a king and emphasised Charles full competence to issue decrees.Шаблон:Sfn To promote legal education Charles paid high salaries—20–50 ounces of gold in a year—to masters of law at the University of Naples.Шаблон:Sfn Masters of medicine received similar remunerations, and the university became a principal centre of medical science.Шаблон:Sfn Charles's personal interest in medicine grew during his life and he borrowed Arabic medical texts from the rulers of Tunis to have them translated.Шаблон:Sfn He employed at least one Jewish scholar, Moses of Palermo, who could translate texts from Arabic to Latin.Шаблон:Sfn Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi's medical encyclopaedia, known as Шаблон:Lang, was one of the books translated at Charles's order.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles was also a poet, which distinguished him from his Capetian relatives.Шаблон:Sfn He composed love songs and a jeu-parti (the latter with Pierre d'Angicourt).Шаблон:Sfn He was requested to judge two poetic competitions in his youth, but modern scholars do not esteem his poetry.Шаблон:Sfn The Provençal troubadours were mostly critical when writing of Charles, but French poets were willing to praise him.Шаблон:Sfn Bertran d'Alamanon wrote a poem against the salt tax and Raimon de Tors de Marseilha rebuked Charles for invading the Regno. The trouvère Adam de la Halle dedicated an unfinished epic poem, entitled The King of Sicily, to Charles and Jean de Meun glorified his victories in the Romance of the Rose.Шаблон:Sfn Dante described Charles—"who bears a manly nose"—singing peacefully together with his one-time rival, Peter III of Aragon, in Purgatory.Шаблон:Sfn
Charles also showed interest in architecture.Шаблон:Sfn He designed a tower in Brindisi, but it soon collapsed.Шаблон:Sfn He ordered the erection of the Castel Nuovo in Naples, of which only the palatine chapel survives from his work.Шаблон:Sfn He is also credited with the introduction of French-style stained glass windows in southern Italy.Шаблон:Sfn
Notes
References
Sources
- Шаблон:Cite journal
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Further reading
External links
Шаблон:S-start Шаблон:S-hou Шаблон:S-reg Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-new Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl |- Шаблон:S-vac Шаблон:S-ttl |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft |- Шаблон:S-bef Шаблон:S-ttl Шаблон:S-aft Шаблон:S-end
Шаблон:Princes of Achaea Шаблон:Kings of Naples Шаблон:Monarchs of Sicily
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