Английская Википедия:Cherokee language

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use mdy dates Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Contains special characters Шаблон:Cherokee language

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Number of speakers
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Cherokee is classified as Critically Endangered by UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Cherokee or Tsalagi (Шаблон:Lang-chr, Шаблон:IPA) is an endangered-to-moribundШаблон:Efn Iroquoian language[1] and the native language of the Cherokee people.[2][3][4] Ethnologue states that there were 1,520 Cherokee speakers out of 376,000 Cherokee in 2018,[1] while a tally by the three Cherokee tribes in 2019 recorded ~2,100 speakers.[5] The number of speakers is in decline. The Tahlequah Daily Press reported in 2019 that most speakers are elderly, about eight fluent speakers die each month, and that only 5 people under the age of 50 are fluent.[6] The dialect of Cherokee in Oklahoma is "definitely endangered", and the one in North Carolina is "severely endangered" according to UNESCO.[7] The Lower dialect, formerly spoken on the South Carolina–Georgia border, has been extinct since about 1900.Шаблон:Sfn The dire situation regarding the future of the two remaining dialects prompted the Tri-Council of Cherokee tribes to declare a state of emergency in June 2019, with a call to enhance revitalization efforts.[5]

Around 200 speakers of the Eastern (also referred to as the Middle or Kituwah) dialect remain in North Carolina, and language preservation efforts include the New Kituwah Academy, a bilingual immersion school.[8] The largest remaining group of Cherokee speakers is centered around Tahlequah, Oklahoma, where the Western (Overhill or Otali) dialect predominates. The Cherokee Immersion School (Шаблон:Lang) in Tahlequah serves children in federally recognized tribes from pre-school up to grade 6.[9]

Cherokee, a polysynthetic language,[10] is also the only member of the Southern Iroquoian family,Шаблон:Sfn and it uses a unique syllabary writing system.[11] As a polysynthetic language, Cherokee differs dramatically from Indo-European languages such as English, French, Spanish, or Portuguese, and as such can be difficult for adult learners to acquire.[2] A single Cherokee word can convey ideas that would require multiple English words to express, from the context of the assertion and connotations about the speaker to the idea's action and its object. The morphological complexity of the Cherokee language is best exhibited in verbs, which comprise approximately 75% of the language, as opposed to only 25% of the English language.[2] Verbs must contain at minimum a pronominal prefix, a verb root, an aspect suffix, and a modal suffix.Шаблон:Sfn

Extensive documentation of the language exists, as it is the indigenous language of North America in which the most literature has been published.[12] Such publications include a Cherokee dictionary and grammar, as well as several editions of the New Testament and Psalms of the Bible[13] and the Cherokee Phoenix (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang), the first newspaper published by Native Americans in the United States and the first published in a Native American language.[14][15]

Classification

Cherokee is an Iroquoian language, and the only Southern Iroquoian language spoken today. Linguists believe that the Cherokee people migrated to the southeast from the Great Lakes regionШаблон:Sfn about three thousand years ago, bringing with them their language. Despite the three-thousand-year geographic separation, the Cherokee language today still shows some similarities to the languages spoken around the Great Lakes, such as Mohawk, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora.

Some researchers (such as Thomas Whyte) have suggested the homeland of the proto-Iroquoian language resides in Appalachia. Whyte contends, based on linguistic and molecular studies, that proto-Iroquoian speakers participated in cultural and economic exchanges along the north–south axis of the Appalachian Mountains.Шаблон:Citation needed The divergence of Southern Iroquoian (which Cherokee is the only known branch of) from the Northern Iroquoian languages occurred approximately 4,000–3,000 years ago as Late Archaic proto-Iroquoian speaking peoples became more sedentary with the advent of horticulture, advancement of lithic technologies and the emergence of social complexity in the Eastern Woodlands. In the subsequent millennia, the Northern Iroquoian and Southern Iroquoian would be separated by various Algonquin and Siouan speaking peoples as linguistic, religious, social and technological practices from the Algonquin to the north and east and the Siouans to the west from the Ohio Valley would come to be practiced by peoples in the Chesapeake region, as well as parts of the Carolinas.

History

Файл:Cherokee Heritage Center - New Hope Church - Bible cover in Cherokee script (2015-05-27 14.09.44 by Wesley Fryer).jpg
Bible cover in Cherokee script

Шаблон:Main Шаблон:See also

Literacy

Шаблон:See also

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Translation of Genesis into the Cherokee language, 1856

Before the development of the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s, Cherokee was an oral language only. The Cherokee syllabary is a set of written symbols invented by Sequoyah in the late 1810s and early 1820s to write the Cherokee language. His creation of the syllabary is particularly noteworthy in that he could not previously read any script. Sequoyah had some contact with English literacy and the Roman alphabet through his proximity to Fort Loudoun, where he engaged in trade with Europeans. He was exposed to English literacy through his white father. His limited understanding of the Latin alphabet, including the ability to recognize the letters of his name, may have aided him in the creation of the Cherokee syllabary.[16] When developing the written language, Sequoyah first experimented with logograms, but his system later developed into a syllabary. In his system, each symbol represents a syllable rather than a single phoneme; the 85 (originally 86)Шаблон:Sfn characters in the Cherokee syllabary provide a suitable method to write Cherokee. Some typeface syllables do resemble the Latin, Greek, and even the Cyrillic scripts' letters, but the sounds are completely different (for example, the sound Шаблон:IPA is written with a letter that resembles Latin D).

Around 1809, Sequoyah began work to create a system of writing for the Cherokee language.[17] At first he sought to create a character for each word in the language. He spent a year on this effort, leaving his fields unplanted, so that his friends and neighbors thought he had lost his mind.[18][19] His wife is said to have burned his initial work, believing it to be witchcraft.[17] He finally realized that this approach was impractical because it would require too many pictures to be remembered. He then tried making a symbol for every idea, but this also caused too many problems to be practical.[20]

Sequoyah did not succeed until he gave up trying to represent entire words and developed a written symbol for each syllable in the language. After approximately a month, he had a system of 86 characters.[18] "In their present form, [typeface syllabary not the original handwritten Syllabary] many of the syllabary characters resemble Roman, Cyrillic, or Greek letters, or Arabic numerals," says Janine Scancarelli, a scholar of Cherokee writing, "but there is no apparent relationship between their sounds in other languages and in Cherokee."[17]

Unable to find adults willing to learn the syllabary, he taught it to his daughter, Ayokeh (also spelled Ayoka).[17] Langguth says she was only six years old at the time.[21] He traveled to the Indian Reserves in the Arkansaw Territory where some Cherokee had settled. When he tried to convince the local leaders of the syllabary's usefulness, they doubted him, believing that the symbols were merely ad hoc reminders. Sequoyah asked each to say a word, which he wrote down, and then called his daughter in to read the words back. This demonstration convinced the leaders to let him teach the syllabary to a few more people. This took several months, during which it was rumored that he might be using the students for sorcery. After completing the lessons, Sequoyah wrote a dictated letter to each student, and read a dictated response. This test convinced the western Cherokee that he had created a practical writing system.[19]

When Sequoyah returned east, he brought a sealed envelope containing a written speech from one of the Arkansas Cherokee leaders. By reading this speech, he convinced the eastern Cherokee also to learn the system, after which it spread rapidly.[18][19] In 1825 the Cherokee Nation officially adopted the writing system. From 1828 to 1834, American missionaries assisted the Cherokee in using Sequoyah's original syllabary to develop typeface syllabary characters and print the Cherokee Phoenix, the first newspaper of the Cherokee Nation, with text in both Cherokee and English.[22]

In 1826, the Cherokee National Council commissioned George Lowrey and David Brown to translate and print eight copies of the laws of the Cherokee Nation in the new Cherokee language typeface using Sequoyah's system, but not his original self-created handwritten syllable glyphs.[20]

Once Albert Gallatin saw a copy of Sequoyah's syllabary, he found the syllabary superior to the English alphabet. Even though a Cherokee student must learn 86 syllables instead of 26 letters, they can read immediately. Students could accomplish in a few weeks what students of English writing could learn in two years.[21]

In 1824, the General Council of the Eastern Cherokee awarded Sequoyah a large silver medal in honor of the syllabary. According to Davis, one side of the medal bore his image surrounded by the inscription in English, "Presented to George Gist by the General Council of the Cherokee for his ingenuity in the invention of the Cherokee Alphabet." The reverse side showed two long-stemmed pipes and the same inscription written in Cherokee. Supposedly, Sequoyah wore the medal throughout the rest of his life, and it was buried with him.[20]

By 1825, the Bible and numerous religious hymns and pamphlets, educational materials, legal documents, and books were translated into the Cherokee language. Thousands of Cherokee became literate and the literacy rate for Cherokee in the original syllabary, as well as the typefaced syllabary, was higher in the Cherokee Nation than that of literacy of whites in the English alphabet in the United States.

Though use of the Cherokee syllabary declined after many of the Cherokee were forcibly removed to Indian Territory, present-day Oklahoma, it has survived in private correspondence, renderings of the Bible, and descriptions of Indian medicine[23] and now can be found in books and on the internet among other places.

In February 2022, Motorola Mobility introduced a Cherokee language interface for its latest smartphone. Eastern Band Principal Chief Richard Sneed, who along with other Cherokee leaders worked with Motorola on the development, considered this an effort to preserve the language. Features included not only symbols but also the culture.[24]

Geographic distribution

The language remains concentrated in some Oklahoma communities[25] and communities like Big Cove and Snowbird in North Carolina.[26]

Dialects

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Video of Jerry Wolfe (1924–2018), speaking in English and the Kituwah dialect of Cherokee in 2013

At the time of European contact, there were three major dialects of Cherokee: Lower, Middle, and Overhill. The Lower dialect, formerly spoken on the South Carolina-Georgia border, has been extinct since about 1900.Шаблон:Sfn Of the remaining two dialects, the Middle dialect (Kituwah) is spoken by the Eastern Band on the Qualla Boundary, and retains ~200 speakers.[1] The Overhill, or Western, dialect is spoken in eastern Oklahoma and by the Snowbird Community in North Carolina by ~1,300 people.[1]Шаблон:Sfn The Western dialect is most widely used and is considered the main dialect of the language.[2][27] Both dialects have had English influence, with the Overhill, or Western dialect showing some Spanish influence as well.[27]

The now extinct Lower dialect spoken by the inhabitants of the Lower Towns in the vicinity of the South Carolina–Georgia border had r as the liquid consonant in its inventory, while both the contemporary Kituhwa dialect spoken in North Carolina and the Overhill dialect contain l.

Language drift

There are two main dialects of Cherokee spoken by modern speakers. The Giduwa (or Kituwah) dialect (Eastern Band) and the Otali dialect (also called the Overhill dialect) spoken in Oklahoma. The Otali dialect has drifted significantly from Sequoyah's syllabary in the past 150 years, and many contracted and borrowed words have been adopted into the language. These noun and verb roots in Cherokee, however, can still be mapped to Sequoyah's syllabary. There are more than 85 syllables in use by modern Cherokee speakers.

Status and preservation efforts

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In 2019, the Tri-Council of Cherokee tribes declared a state of emergency for the language due to the threat of it going extinct, calling for the enhancement of revitalization programs.[5] The language retains about 1,500[6] to 2,100[5] Cherokee speakers, but an average of eight fluent speakers die each month, and only a handful of people under 40 years of age are fluent as of 2019.[6]Шаблон:Additional citation needed In 1986, the literacy rate for first language speakers was 15–20% who could read and 5% who could write, according to the 1986 Cherokee Heritage Center.[13] A 2005 survey determined that the Eastern Band had 460 fluent speakers. Ten years later, the number was believed to be 200.[28]

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Tsali Boulevard (transcription: Шаблон:Lang – "Шаблон:Lang") in Cherokee, North Carolina

Cherokee is "definitely endangered" in Oklahoma and "severely endangered" in North Carolina according to UNESCO.[7] Cherokee has been the co-official language of the Cherokee Nation alongside English since a 1991 legislation officially proclaimed this under the Act Relating to the Tribal Policy for the Promotion and Preservation of Cherokee Language, History, and Culture.[29] Cherokee is also recognized as the official language of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. As Cherokee is official, the entire constitution of the United Keetoowah Band is available in both English and Cherokee. As an official language, any tribal member may communicate with the tribal government in Cherokee or English, English translation services are provided for Cherokee speakers, and both Cherokee and English are used when the tribe provides services, resources, and information to tribal members or when communicating with the tribal council.[29] The 1991 legislation allows the political branch of the nation to maintain Cherokee as a living language.[29] Because they are within the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area, hospitals and health centers such as the Three Rivers Health Center in Muscogee, Oklahoma provide Cherokee language translation services.[30]

Education

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Oklahoma Cherokee language immersion school student writing in the Cherokee syllabary
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The Cherokee language taught to preschool students at New Kituwah Academy

In 2008 the Cherokee Nation initiated a ten-year language preservation plan that involved growing new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs, as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home.[31] This plan was part of an ambitious goal that in 50 years, 80 percent or more of the Cherokee people will be fluent in the language.[32] The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $4.5 million into opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used. They have accomplished: "Curriculum development, teaching materials and teacher training for a total immersion program for children, beginning when they are preschoolers, that enables them to learn Cherokee as their first language. The participating children and their parents learn to speak and read together. The Tribe operates the Kituwah Academy".[32] Formed in 2006, the Kituwah Preservation & Education Program (KPEP) on the Qualla Boundary focuses on language immersion programs for children from birth to fifth grade, developing cultural resources for the general public and community language programs to foster the Cherokee language among adults.[33]

There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade.[34] A second campus was added in November 2021, when the school purchased Greasy School in Greasy, Oklahoma, located in southern Adair County ten miles south of Stilwell.[35] Situated in the largest area of Cherokee speakers in the world, the opportunity for that campus is for students to spend the day in an immersion school and then return to a Cherokee-speaking home.[35]

Several universities offer Cherokee as a second language, including the University of Oklahoma, Northeastern State University, and Western Carolina University. Western Carolina University (WCU) has partnered with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) to promote and restore the language through the school's Cherokee Studies program, which offers classes in and about the language and culture of the Cherokee Indians.[36] WCU and the EBCI have initiated a ten-year language revitalization plan consisting of: (1) a continuation of the improvement and expansion of the EBCI Atse Kituwah Cherokee Language Immersion School, (2) continued development of Cherokee language learning resources, and (3) building of Western Carolina University programs to offer a more comprehensive language training curriculum.[36]

In November 2022, the tribe opened a $20 million language center in a 52,000-square-foot building near its headquarters in Tahlequah.[37] The immersion facility, which has classes for youth to adults, features no English signage: even the exit signs feature a pictograph of a person running for the door rather than the English word.[37]

Phonology

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Recording of a native Cherokee speaker from the Eastern Band
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Recording of a Cherokee language stomp dance ceremony in Oklahoma

The family of Iroquoian languages has a unique phonological inventory. Unlike most languages, the Cherokee inventory of consonants lacks the labial sounds Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA. Cherokee does, however, have one labial consonant, Шаблон:IPA, but it is rare, appearing in no more than ten native words.Шаблон:Sfn In fact, the Lower dialect does not produce Шаблон:IPA at all. Instead, it uses Шаблон:IPA.

In the case of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA is often substituted, as in the name of the Cherokee Wikipedia, Шаблон:Lang. Some words may contain sounds not reflected in the given phonology: for instance, the modern Oklahoma use of the loanword "automobile", with the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sounds of English.

Consonants

As with many Iroquoian languages, Cherokee's phonemic inventory is small. The consonants for North Carolina Cherokee are given in the table below. The consonants of all Iroquoian languages pattern so that they may be grouped as (oral) obstruents, sibilants, laryngeals, and resonants.[38]Шаблон:Rp

North Carolina Cherokee consonants
Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
plain lateral plain labial
Nasal Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Stop Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Affricate Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Fricative Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Approximant Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink

Notes

Orthography

There are two main competing orthographies, depending on how plain and aspirated stops (including affricates) are represented:Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

  • In the d/t system, plain stops are represented by English voiced stops (d, g, gw, j, dl) and aspirated stops by English voiceless stops (t, k, kw, c, tl). This orthography is favored by native speakers.
  • In the t/th system, plain stops are represented by voiceless stops instead, and aspirated stops by sequences of voiceless stops + h (th, kh, khw/kwh, ch, thl/tlh). This orthography is favored by linguists.

Another orthography, used in Holmes (1977), doesn't distinguish plain stops from aspirated stops for Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA and uses ts and qu for both modes.Шаблон:Sfn Spellings working from the syllabary rather than from the sounds often behave similarly, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA being the only two stop series not having separate letters for plain and aspirated before any vowel in Sequoyah script. Ex: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transliteration Шаблон:IPA.

Vowels

There are six short vowels and six long vowels in the Cherokee inventory.Шаблон:Sfn As with all Iroquoian languages, this includes a nasalized vowel.[38]Шаблон:Rp In the case of Cherokee, the nasalized vowel is a mid central vowel usually represented as v and is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, that is as a schwa vowel like the unstressed "a" in the English word "comma" plus the nasalization. It is similar to the nasalized vowel in the French word un which means "one".

Cherokee vowels
Front Central Back
Close Шаблон:IPA link   Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link   Шаблон:IPA link
Mid Шаблон:IPA link   Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link   Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link   Шаблон:IPA link
Open Шаблон:IPA link   Шаблон:IPA link

Шаблон:IPA is weakly rounded and often realized as Шаблон:IPA.

Word-final vowels are short and nasalized, and receive an automatic high or high-falling tone: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'thank you'.Шаблон:Sfn They are often dropped in casual speech: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'dirt'.Шаблон:Sfn When deletion happens, trailing Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are also deleted and any resulting long vowel is further shortened:Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang 'he saw it'.

Short vowels are devoiced before Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn But due to the phonological rules of vowel deletion, laryngeal metathesis and laryngeal alternation (see below), this environment is relatively rare.

Sequences of two non-identical vowels are disallowed and the vowel clash must be resolved. There are four strategies depending on the phonological and morphological environments:Шаблон:Sfn

  1. the first vowel is kept: Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang 'he wants',
  2. the second vowel is kept: Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang 'you're going',
  3. an epenthetic consonant is inserted: Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang,
  4. they merge into a different vowel or tone quality.

These make the identification of each individual morpheme often a difficult task:

Шаблон:Interlinear

Шаблон:Interlinear

Tone

Cherokee distinguishes six pitch patterns or tones, using four pitch levels. Two tones are level (low, high) and appear on short or long vowels. The other four are contour tones (rising, falling, lowfall, highrise) and appear on long vowels only.Шаблон:Sfn

There is no academic consensus on the notation of tone and length, although in 2011 a project began to document the use of tones in Cherokee to improve language instruction.[39] Below are the main conventions, along with the standardized IPA notation.

Vowel length Tone IPA Pulte & Feeling
(1975) 		Scancarelli
(1986) 		Montgomery-Anderson
(2008, 2015) 		Feeling (2003),
Uchihara (2016)
Short Low Шаблон:IPA ạ² à a a
High Шаблон:IPA ạ³ á á á
Long Low Шаблон:IPA a² à: aa aa
High Шаблон:IPA a³ á: áa áá
Rising Шаблон:IPA a²³ ǎ: aá aá
Falling Шаблон:IPA a³² â: áà áà
Lowfall Шаблон:IPA a¹ (= a²¹) ȁ: aà àà, àa
Superhigh Шаблон:IPA a⁴ (= a³⁴) a̋: áá aa̋
  • The low tone is the default, unmarked tone.
  • The high tone is the marked tone. Some sources of high tone apply to the mora, others to the syllable. Complex morphophonological rules govern whether it can spread one mora to the left, to the right or at all. It has both lexical and morphological functions.
  • The rising and falling tones are secondary tones, i.e. combinations of low and high tones, deriving from moraic high tones and from high tone spread.
  • The lowfall tone mainly derives from glottal stop deletion after a long vowel, but also has important morphological functions (pronominal lowering, tonic/atonic alternation, laryngeal alternation).
  • The superhigh tone, also called highfall by Montgomery-Anderson, has a distinctive morphosyntactical function, primarily appearing on adjectives, nouns derived from verbs, and on subordinate verbs. It is mobile and falls on the rightmost long vowel. If the final short vowel is dropped and the superhigh tone becomes in word-final position, it is shortened and pronounced like a slightly higher final tone (notated as a̋ in most orthographies). There can only be one superhigh tone per word, constraint not shared by the other tones. For these reasons, this contour exhibits some accentual properties and has been referred to as an accent (or stress) in the literature.Шаблон:Sfn

While the tonal system is undergoing a gradual simplification in many areas, it remains important in meaning and is still held strongly by many, especially older, speakers. The syllabary displays neither tone nor vowel length, but as stated earlier regarding the paucity of minimal pairs, real cases of ambiguity are rare. The same goes for transliterated Cherokee (Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:IPA, etc.), which is rarely written with any tone markers, except in dictionaries. Native speakers can tell the difference between written words based solely on context.

Grammar

Шаблон:Main Cherokee, like many Native American languages, is polysynthetic, meaning that many morphemes may be linked together to form a single word, which may be of great length. Cherokee verbs must contain at a minimum a pronominal prefix, a verb root, an aspect suffix, and a modal suffix,Шаблон:Sfn for a total of 17 verb tenses.[28] They can also bear prepronominal prefixes, reflexive prefixes, and derivational suffixes. Given all possible combinations of affixes, each regular verb can have 21,262 inflected forms.

For example, the verb form Шаблон:Lang, 'I am going', has each of these elements:

Verb form Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
g- -éé- -g- -a
PRONOMINAL PREFIX
1 sg		 VERB ROOT
'to go'		 ASPECT SUFFIX
present		 MODAL SUFFIX

The pronominal prefix is Шаблон:Lang, which indicates first person singular. The verb root is Шаблон:Lang, 'to go.' The aspect suffix that this verb employs for the present-tense stem is Шаблон:Lang. The present-tense modal suffix for regular verbs in Cherokee is Шаблон:Lang.

Cherokee makes three number distinctions on pronouns: singular, dual and plural. It does not make gender distinction,Шаблон:Sfn but does distinguish animacy in third person pronouns. Cherokee also makes the distinction between inclusive and exclusive pronouns in the first person dual and plural. There is no distinction between dual and plural in the 3rd person. This makes a total of 10 persons.

The following is the conjugation of this verb form in all 10 persons.Шаблон:Sfn

Full conjugation in the present progressive aspect of verbal root Шаблон:Lang 'to be going'
Person Singular Dual Plural
1st exclusive Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear
inclusive Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear
2nd Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear
3rd Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The translation uses the present progressive ('at this time I am going'). Cherokee differentiates between progressive ('I am going') and habitual ('I go') more than English does. For the habitual, the aspectual prefix is Шаблон:Lang "imperfective" or "incompletive" (here identical to present, but can vary for other verbs) and the modal prefix Шаблон:Lang "habitual".

Full conjugation in the habitual aspect of verbal root Шаблон:Lang 'to often/usually go'Шаблон:Sfn
Person Singular Dual Plural
1st exclusive Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear
inclusive Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear
2nd Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear
3rd Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Pronouns and pronominal prefixes

Like many Native American languages, Cherokee has many pronominal prefixes that can index both subject and object. Pronominal prefixes always appear on verbs and can also appear on adjectives and nouns.Шаблон:Sfn There are two separate words which function as pronouns: Шаблон:Lang 'I, me' and Шаблон:Lang 'you'.

Table of Cherokee pronominal prefixes before a consonant, vowel
1st person 2nd person 3rd person
set I set II set I set II set I set II
singular Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
dual inclusive Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – –
exclusive Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang – – – –
plural inclusive Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – –
exclusive Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang

Compound pronouns

A Cherokee pronoun's number marks not only the agent of a verb, but often the object as well. This is the case if the depending object was already mentioned and would be substituted by a separate pronoun in English as well. Contrary to English, animacy is marked but gender is not.

(These suffixes have to be treated in a CV syllabary structure.) Set I and II join here except if written A | B.

Шаблон:Diagonal split header 1 s 2 s 3 s an 3 s in 1 d inc 1 d exc 2 d 1 p inc 1 p exc 2 p 3 p an 3 p in
1 singular – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
2 singular Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
3 singular (animate) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang deg(i)- Шаблон:Lang
1 dual inclusive – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – – – – – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
1 dual exclusive – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
2 dual Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
1 plural inclusive – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – – – – – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
1 plural exclusive – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
2 plural Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang – – Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
3 plural (animate) Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang

Some prefixes are the same, even though they mean their opposite. Understanding is ensured by regular stem changes within the verb.

Shape classifiers in verbs

Some Cherokee verbs require special classifiers which denote a physical property of the direct object. Only around 20 common verbs require one of these classifiers (such as the equivalents of 'pick up', 'put down', 'remove', 'wash', 'hide', 'eat', 'drag', 'have', 'hold', 'put in water', 'put in fire', 'hang up', 'be placed', 'pull along'). The classifiers can be grouped into five categories:

  • Live
  • Flexible (most common)
  • Long (narrow, not flexible)
  • Indefinite (solid, heavy relative to size), also used as default categoryШаблон:Sfn
  • Liquid (or container of)

Example:

Conjugation of 'hand himШаблон:Nbsp...'
Classifier type Cherokee Transliteration Translation
Live Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Hand him (something living)
Flexible Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Hand him (something like clothes, rope)
Long, indefinite Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Hand him (something like a broom, pencil)
Indefinite Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Hand him (something like food, book)
Liquid Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Hand him (something like water)

There have been reports that the youngest speakers of Cherokee are using only the indefinite forms, suggesting a decline in usage or full acquisition of the system of shape classification.Шаблон:Sfn Cherokee is the only Iroquoian language with this type of classificatory verb system, leading linguists to reanalyze it as a potential remnant of a noun incorporation system in Proto-Iroquoian.[40] However, given the non-productive nature of noun incorporation in Cherokee, other linguists have suggested that classificatory verbs are the product of historical contact between Cherokee and non-Iroquoian languages, and instead that the noun incorporation system in Northern Iroquoian languages developed later.[41]

Word order

All orderings between subjects, verbs, and objects are possible in Cherokee sentences, but word order preferences are influenced by a number of factors. Some preferences are determined by information structure; items that express new information typically precede those that refer to entities already in the conversation.Шаблон:Sfn Word order is also influenced by thematic role, such that agent arguments of transitive sentences (subjects) typically precede theme arguments (objects).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In copular sentences, the subject complement must precede the copular verb.Шаблон:Sfn Negative sentences have a different word order.Шаблон:Citation needed

Adjectives precede nouns, as in English. Demonstratives, such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang ('that') or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang ('this'), come at the beginning of noun phrases. Relative clauses follow noun phrases.Шаблон:Sfn Adverbs precede the verbs that they are modifying. For example, 'she's speaking loudly' is Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (literally, 'loud she's-speaking').Шаблон:Sfn

In affirmative present tense sentences, no verb is required to express a copular, predicative relationship between two noun phrases. In such a case, word order is flexible. For example, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang ('that man is my father'). A noun phrase might be followed by an adjective, such as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang ('my father is big').Шаблон:Sfn

Orthography

Шаблон:Main

Файл:Sequoyah.jpg
Sequoyah, inventor of the Cherokee syllabary

Cherokee is written in an 85-character syllabary invented by Sequoyah (also known as Guest or George Gist). Many of the letters resemble the Latin letters they derive from, but have completely unrelated sound values; Sequoyah had seen English, Hebrew, and Greek writing but did not know how to read them.Шаблон:Sfn

Two other scripts used to write Cherokee are a simple Latin transliteration and a more precise system with Diacritical marks.Шаблон:Sfn

Description

Each of the characters represents one syllable, as in the Japanese kana and the Bronze Age Greek Linear B writing systems. The first six characters represent isolated vowel syllables. Characters for combined consonant and vowel syllables then follow. It is recited from left to right, top to bottom.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Rp

The charts below show the syllabary as arranged by Samuel Worcester along with his commonly used transliterations. He played a key role in the development of Cherokee printing from 1828 until his death in 1859.

Файл:Cherokee Syllabary.svg

Notes

  1. In the chart, 'v' represents a nasal vowel, Шаблон:IPA.
  2. The character Ꮩ do is shown upside-down in some fonts.Шаблон:Refn

The transliteration working from the syllabary uses conventional consonants like qu and ts, and may differ from the ones used in the phonological orthographies (first column in the below chart, in the d/t system).

Ø Ꭰ a   Ꭱ e   Ꭲ i   Ꭳ o Ꭴ u Ꭵ v
g / k Ꭶ ga Ꭷ ka   Ꭸ ge   Ꭹ gi   Ꭺ go Ꭻ gu Ꭼ gv
h Ꭽ ha   Ꭾ he   Ꭿ hi   Ꮀ ho Ꮁ hu Ꮂ hv
l / hl Ꮃ la   Ꮄ le   Ꮅ li   Ꮆ lo Ꮇ lu Ꮈ lv
m Ꮉ ma   Ꮊ me   Ꮋ mi   Ꮌ mo Ꮍ mu
n / hn Ꮎ na Ꮏ hna Ꮐ nah Ꮑ ne   Ꮒ ni   Ꮓ no Ꮔ nu Ꮕ nv
gw / kw Ꮖ qua   Ꮗ que   Ꮘ qui   Ꮙ quo Ꮚ quu Ꮛ quv
s Ꮝ s Ꮜ sa   Ꮞ se   Ꮟ si   Ꮠ so Ꮡ su Ꮢ sv
d / t Ꮣ da Ꮤ ta   Ꮥ de Ꮦ te Ꮧ di Ꮨ ti Ꮩ do Ꮪ du Ꮫ dv
dl / tl (hl) Ꮬ dla Ꮭ tla   Ꮮ tle   Ꮯ tli   Ꮰ tlo Ꮱ tlu Ꮲ tlv
j / c
(dz / ts) 		Ꮳ tsa   Ꮴ tse   Ꮵ tsi   Ꮶ tso Ꮷ tsu Ꮸ tsv
w / hw Ꮹ wa   Ꮺ we   Ꮻ wi   Ꮼ wo Ꮽ wu Ꮾ wv
y / hy Ꮿ ya   Ᏸ ye   Ᏹ yi   Ᏺ yo Ᏻ yu Ᏼ yv

The phonetic values of these characters do not equate directly to those represented by the letters of the Latin script. Some characters represent two distinct phonetic values (actually heard as different syllables), while others often represent different forms of the same syllable.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Rp Not all phonemic distinctions of the spoken language are represented:

  • Aspirated consonants are generally not distinguished from their plain counterpart. For example, while Шаблон:IPA + vowel syllables are mostly differentiated from Шаблон:IPA + vowel by use of different glyphs, syllables beginning with Шаблон:IPA are all conflated with those beginning with Шаблон:IPA.
  • Long vowels are not distinguished from short vowels. However, in more recent technical literature, length of vowels can actually be indicated using a colon, and other disambiguation methods for consonants (somewhat like the Japanese dakuten) have been suggested.
  • Tones are not marked.
  • Syllables ending in vowels, h, or glottal stop are undifferentiated. For example, the single symbol Ꮡ is used to represent both suú as in Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'six' (Шаблон:Lang), and súh as in Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'fishhook' (Шаблон:Lang).
  • There is no regular rule for representing consonant clusters. When consonants other than s, h, or glottal stop arise in clusters with other consonants, a vowel must be inserted, chosen either arbitrarily or for etymological reasons (reflecting an underlying etymological vowel, see vowel deletion for instance). For example, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) represents the word Шаблон:Lang, meaning 'small (pl.), babies'. The consonant cluster ns is broken down by insertion of the vowel a, and is spelled as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. The vowel is etymological as Шаблон:Lang is composed of the morphemes Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Gcl), where a is part of the root. The vowel is included in the transliteration, but is not pronounced.

As with some other underspecified writing systems, such as Arabic, adult speakers can distinguish words by context.

Transliteration issues

Transliteration software that operates without access to or reference to context greater than a single character can have difficulties with some Cherokee words. For example, words that contain adjacent pairs of single letter symbols, that (without special provisions) would be combined when doing the back conversion from Latin script to Cherokee. Here are a few examples:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear

For these examples, the back conversion is likely to join s-a as sa or s-i as si. Transliterations sometimes insert an apostrophe to prevent this, producing Шаблон:Lang (cf. Шаблон:Lang).

Other Cherokee words contain character pairs that entail overlapping transliteration sequences. Examples:

If the Latin script is parsed from left to right, longest match first, then without special provisions, the back conversion would be wrong for the latter. There are several similar examples involving these character combinations: naha nahe nahi naho nahu nahv.

A further problem encountered in transliterating Cherokee is that there are some pairs of different Cherokee words that transliterate to the same word in the Latin script. For example, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang both transliterate to Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang both transliterate to Шаблон:Lang. Without special provision, a round-trip conversion changes Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang and changes Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang.[lower-alpha 1]

Unicode

Cherokee was added to the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0.

Blocks

Шаблон:Main

The main Unicode block for Cherokee is U+13A0–U+13FF.Шаблон:Efn It contains the script's upper-case syllables as well as six lower-case syllables: Шаблон:Unicode chart Cherokee

The rest of the lower-case syllables are encoded at U+AB70–ABBF: Шаблон:Unicode chart Cherokee Supplement

Fonts and digital platform support

A single Cherokee Unicode font, Plantagenet Cherokee, is supplied with macOS, version 10.3 (Panther) and later. Windows Vista also includes a Cherokee font. Several free Cherokee fonts are available including Digohweli, Donisiladv, and Noto Sans Cherokee. Some pan-Unicode fonts, such as Code2000, Everson Mono, and GNU FreeFont, include Cherokee characters. A commercial font, Phoreus Cherokee, published by TypeCulture, includes multiple weights and styles.[42] The Cherokee Nation Language Technology Program supports "innovative solutions for the Cherokee language on all digital platforms including smartphones, laptops, desktops, tablets and social networks."[43]

Vocabulary

Файл:Cherokee stop sign.png
Cherokee stop sign, Tahlequah, Oklahoma, with Шаблон:Lang "Шаблон:Lang" (also spelled "Шаблон:Lang") meaning 'stop'
Файл:Cwy no parking.jpg
Cherokee traffic sign in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, reading Шаблон:Lang "Шаблон:Lang", meaning 'no parking' from "Шаблон:Lang" meaning 'no'

Numbers

Cherokee uses Arabic numerals (0–9). The Cherokee council voted not to adopt Sequoyah's numbering system.[44] Sequoyah created individual symbols for 1–20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 as well as a symbol for three zeros for numbers in the thousands, and a symbol for six zeros for numbers in the millions. These last two symbols, representing ",000" and ",000,000", are made up of two separate symbols each. They have a symbol in common, which could be used as a zero in itself.

English Cherokee[45] Transliteration
one Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
two Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
three Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
four Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
five Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
six Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
seven Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
eight Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
nine Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
ten Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
eleven Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
twelve Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
thirteen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
fourteen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
fifteen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
sixteen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
seventeen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
eighteen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
nineteen Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
twenty Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang

Days

English Cherokee[45][46] Transliteration
Days of the week Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Sunday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Monday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Tuesday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Wednesday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Thursday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Friday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Saturday Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang

Months

English Meaning Cherokee Transliteration
January Month of the Cold Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
February Month of the Bony Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
March Month of the Windy Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
April Month of the Flower Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
May Month of the Planting Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
June Month of the Green Corn Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
July Month of the Ripe Corn Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
August Month of the End of Fruit Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
September Month of the Nut Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
October Month of the Harvest Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
November Month of Trading Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
December Month of the Snow Moon Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang

Colors

English Cherokee Transliteration
black Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
blue Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
brown Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
green Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
gray Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
gold Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
orange Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
pink Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
purple Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
red Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
silver Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
white Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
yellow Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang

Word creation

The polysynthetic nature of the Cherokee language enables the language to develop new descriptive words in Cherokee to reflect or express new concepts. Some good examples are Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration, 'he argues repeatedly and on purpose with a purpose') corresponding to 'attorney' and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration, 'the final catcher' or 'he catches them finally and conclusively') for 'policeman'.[47]

Other words have been adopted from another language such as the English word gasoline, which in Cherokee is Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration). Other words were adopted from the languages of tribes who settled in Oklahoma in the early 1900s. One interesting and humorous example is the name of Nowata, Oklahoma, deriving from Шаблон:Lang, a Delaware word for 'welcome' (more precisely the Delaware word is Шаблон:Lang which can mean 'welcome' or 'friend' in the Delaware languages). The white settlers of the area used the name Шаблон:Lang for the township, and local Cherokee, being unaware that the word had its origins in the Delaware language, called the town Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) which means 'the water is all gone gone from here' — i.e. 'no water'.[48]

Other examples of adopted words are Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) for 'coffee' and Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transliteration) for 'watch'; which led to Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, 'big watch') for clock.[48]

Meaning expansion can be illustrated by the words for 'warm' and 'cold', which can be also extended to mean 'south' and 'north'. Around the time of the American Civil War, they were further extended to US party labels, Democratic and Republican, respectively.[49]

Samples

From the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Concerning the syllabary

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:Wiktionary Шаблон:Wikibooks Шаблон:Commons category

Language archives, texts, audio, video

Language lessons and online instruction

Шаблон:Cherokee Шаблон:Iroquoian languages Шаблон:Languages of Oklahoma Шаблон:Languages of the United States Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
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Разное

  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Шаблон:Cite web
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 5,3 Шаблон:Cite news
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 Шаблон:Cite news
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ LeBeau, Patrick. Term Paper Resource Guide to American Indian History. Greenwoord. Westport, CT: 2009. p. 132.
  15. ↑ Woods, Thomas E. Exploring American History: Penn, William – Serra, Junípero Cavendish. Tarrytown, NY: 2008. p. 829.
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  17. ↑ 17,0 17,1 17,2 17,3 Шаблон:Cite news
  18. ↑ 18,0 18,1 18,2 Шаблон:Cite news
  19. ↑ 19,0 19,1 19,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
  20. ↑ 20,0 20,1 20,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Langguth, p. 71
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  24. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  26. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  27. ↑ 27,0 27,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  28. ↑ 28,0 28,1 Шаблон:Cite news
  29. ↑ 29,0 29,1 29,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  32. ↑ 32,0 32,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  33. ↑ Kituwah Preservation & Education Program Powerpoint, by Renissa Walker (2012)'. 2012. Print.
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  35. ↑ 35,0 35,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  36. ↑ 36,0 36,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  37. ↑ 37,0 37,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  38. ↑ 38,0 38,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  40. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  41. ↑ Chafe, Wallace. 2000. "Florescence as a force in grammaticalization." Reconstructing Grammar, ed. Spike Gildea, pp. 39–64. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
  42. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  43. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  44. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  45. ↑ 45,0 45,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  46. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  47. ↑ Holmes and Smith, p. vi
  48. ↑ 48,0 48,1 Holmes and Smith, p. vii
  49. ↑ Holmes and Smith, p. 43


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