Английская Википедия:Chewa language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Infobox ethnonym
Chewa (also known as Nyanja, Шаблон:IPAc-en) is a Bantu language spoken in Malawi and a recognised minority in Zambia and Mozambique. The noun class prefix chi- is used for languages,[1] so the language is usually referred to as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang (spelled Шаблон:Lang in Portuguese). In Malawi, the name was officially changed from Chinyanja to Chichewa in 1968 at the insistence of President Hastings Kamuzu Banda (himself of the Chewa people), and this is still the name most commonly used in Malawi today.[2] In Zambia, the language is generally known as Nyanja or Шаблон:Lang '(language) of the lake' (referring to Lake Malawi).[3]
Chewa belongs to the same language group (Guthrie Zone N) as Tumbuka, Sena[4] and Nsenga.
Throughout the history of Malawi, only Chewa and Tumbuka have at one time been the primary dominant national languages used by government officials and in school curriculums. However, the Tumbuka language suffered greatly during the rule of President Hastings Kamuzu Banda, since in 1968 as a result of his one-nation, one-language policy it lost its status as an official language in Malawi. As a result, Tumbuka was removed from the school curriculum,[5] the national radio, and the print media.[6] With the advent of multi-party democracy in 1994, Tumbuka programmes were started again on the radio, but the number of books and other publications in Tumbuka remains low.[7] Шаблон:TOC limit
Distribution
Chewa is the most widely known language of Malawi, spoken mostly in the Central and Southern Regions of that country.[8] It is also spoken in Eastern Province of Zambia, as well as in Mozambique, especially in the provinces of Tete and Niassa.[9]Шаблон:Self-published inline It was one of the 55 languages featured on the Voyager spacecraft.[10]
History
The Chewa people were a branch of the Maravi people who lived in the Eastern Province of Zambia and in northern Mozambique as far south as the River Zambezi from the 16th century or earlier.[11][12]
The name "Chewa" (in the form Chévas) itself was first recorded by António Gamitto, who at the age of 26 in 1831 was appointed as second-in-command of an expedition from Tete to the court of King Kazembe in what is now Zambia. His route took him through the country of King Undi west of the Dzalanyama mountains, across a corner of present-day Malawi and on into Zambia.[13] Later, he wrote an account including some ethnographic and linguistic notes and vocabularies. According to Gamitto, the Malawi or Maravi people (Maraves) were the people ruled by King Undi south of the Chambwe stream (not far south of the present Mozambique/Zambia border), while the Chewa lived north of the Chambwe.[14]
Another, more extensive, list of 263 words and phrases of the language was made by the German missionary Sigismund Koelle who, working in Sierra Leone in West Africa, interviewed some 160 former slaves and recorded vocabularies in their languages. He published the results in a book called Polyglotta Africana in 1854. One of the slaves he interviewed was Mateke, who spoke a language he referred to as 'Maravi'. Mateke's language is clearly a southern dialect of an early form of Nyanja. For example, the phrase Шаблон:Lang "two years" was Шаблон:Lang in Mateke's speech, whereas for Johannes Rebmann's informant Salimini, who came from the Lilongwe region, it was Шаблон:Lang.[15] The same dialect difference survives today in the word Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang "(to) plant".[16]
Apart from the few words recorded by Gamitto and Koelle, the first extensive record of the Chewa language was made by Johannes Rebmann in his Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language, published in 1877 but written in 1853–4. Rebmann was a missionary living near Mombasa in Kenya, and he obtained his information from a Malawian slave, known by the Swahili name Salimini, who had been captured in Malawi some ten years earlier.[17] Salimini, who came from a place called Mphande apparently in the Lilongwe region, also noted some differences between his own dialect, which he called Шаблон:Lang, the "language of the plateau", and the Шаблон:Lang dialect spoken further south; for example, the Maravi gave the name Шаблон:Lang to the tree which he himself called Шаблон:Lang.[18]
The first grammar, A Grammar of the Chinyanja language as spoken at Lake Nyasa with Chinyanja–English and English–Chinyanja vocabulary, was written by Alexander Riddel in 1880. Further early grammars and vocabularies include A grammar of Chinyanja, a language spoken in British Central Africa, on and near the shores of Lake Nyasa by George Henry (1891) and M.E. Woodward's A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English: as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa (1895). They were dwarfed by David Clement Scott's 700-page A Cyclopaedic dictionary of Mang'anja language spoken in British Central Africa in 1892. A visionary missionary based at Blantyre, Scott not only listed words but treated some of them as philosophical concepts.[19] His successor in Blantyre, Alexander Hetherwick, edited out these philosophical musings from a subsequent version of the dictionary.
The whole Bible was translated into the Likoma Island dialect of Nyanja by William Percival Johnson and published as Шаблон:Lang in 1912.[20] Another Bible translation, known as the Шаблон:Lang, was made in a more standard Central Region dialect about 1900–1922 by missionaries of the Dutch Reformed Mission and Church of Scotland with the help of some Malawians. This has recently (2016) been reissued in a revised and slightly modernised version.[21]
Another early grammar, concentrating on the Kasungu dialect of the language, was Mark Hanna Watkins' A Grammar of Chichewa (1937). This book, the first grammar of any African language to be written by an American, was a work of cooperation between a young black PhD student and young student from Nyasaland studying in Chicago, Hastings Kamuzu Banda, who in 1966 was to become the first President of the Republic of Malawi.[22][23] This grammar is also remarkable in that it was the first to mark the tones of the words. Modern monographs on aspects of Chichewa grammar include Mtenje (1986), Kanerva (1990), Mchombo (2004) and Downing & Mtenje (2017).
In recent years the language has changed considerably, and a dichotomy has grown between the traditional Chichewa of the villages and the language of city-dwellers.[24] Elitism has also been observed among some Malawians who regard Chichewa as the language of uneducated masses.[25]
Phonology
Vowels
Chewa has five contrastive vowel phonemes: /a ɛ i ɔ u/, written ⟨a e i o u⟩. Long vowels also occur, as in áákúlu 'big' (class 2), kufúula 'to shout'.[26] When a word comes at the end of a phrase, its penultimate vowel tends to be lengthened,[27] except for non-Chewa names and words, such as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang, in which the penultimate vowel always remains short.Шаблон:Citation needed The added 'u' or 'i' in borrowed words such as Шаблон:Lang 'laptop' or Шаблон:Lang 'internet' tends to be silent or barely pronounced.[28]
| Front | Central | Back | |
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| Close | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | |
| Open-mid | Шаблон:IPA link | Шаблон:IPA link | |
| Open | Шаблон:IPA link |
Consonants
Chewa consonants can be plain, labialised /Cʷ/, or palatalised (/Cʲ/). Labialised consonants are spelt as digraphs or (trigraphs) with a following ⟨w⟩, whereas palatalised segments are spelt with a ⟨y⟩:
- ba, kha, ga, fa, ma, sa etc.
- bwa, khwa, gwa, fwa, mwa, swa etc. for /bʷa/, /kʷʰa/, /gʷa/, /fʷa/, /mʷa/, etc.
- fya, nya, thya, dya etc. for /fʲa/, /nʲa/, /tʲʰa/, /ɗʲa/ etc.
Voiced and aspirated consonants, as well as [f] and [s], also occur as prenasalised segments:
- mba, ngwa, nja, mva, nza etc.
- mpha, Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, mfa, nsa etc.
The possible consonant combinations can thus be arranged on a table as follows:
The spelling used here is that introduced in 1973,[29] which is the one generally in use in the Malawi at the present time, replacing the Chinyanja Orthography Rules of 1931.[30]
Notes on the consonants
- In most words, Chewa b and d (when not prenasalised) are pronounced implosively, by sucking slightly.[31] However, there is also a plosive b and d, mostly found in foreign words, such as Шаблон:Lang 'bar', Шаблон:Lang 'expensive' (from Afrikaans Шаблон:Lang) (in contrast to the implosive b and d in native words such as Шаблон:Lang 'wound' and Шаблон:Lang 'which cuts').[32] A plosive d is also found in Шаблон:Lang 'to stamp (a document)' and Шаблон:Lang 'confident step'.
- The affricate sounds bv and pf were formerly commonly heard but are now generally replaced by v and f, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'problem', Шаблон:Lang 'bone'. In the Шаблон:Lang dictionary produced by the University of Malawi, the spellings bv and pf are not used in any of the headwords, but bv is used two or three times in the definitions.
- The combination bz is described by Atkins as an "alveolar-labialised fricative".[33] The combination sounds approximately as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. Similarly ps is pronounced approximately as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.
- The sounds written ch, k, p and t are pronounced less forcibly than the English equivalents and generally without aspiration. Stevick notes that in relaxed speech, the first three are sometimes replaced with the voiced fricatives Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, and t can be heard as a voiced flap.[34] In the combination -ti (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'how many'), t may be lightly aspirated.
- h is also used in Chewa but mostly only in loanwords such as Шаблон:Lang 'hotel', Шаблон:Lang 'horse', Шаблон:Lang 'monthly allowance given to chiefs'.
- j is described by Scotton and Orr as being pronounced "somewhat more forward in the mouth" than in English and as sounding "somewhere between an English d and j".[35]
- l and r are the same phoneme,[36] representing a retroflex tap Шаблон:IPA, approximately between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. According to the official spelling rules, the sound is written as 'r' after 'i' or 'e', otherwise 'l'. It is also written with 'l' after a prefix containing 'i', as in Шаблон:Lang 'tongue'.[37][38]
- m is syllabic Шаблон:IPA in words where it is derived from mu, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'relative' (3 syllables), Шаблон:Lang 'teacher' (4 syllables), Шаблон:Lang 'he gave him' (5 syllables). However, in class 9 words, such as Шаблон:Lang 'gift', Шаблон:Lang 'plate', or Шаблон:Lang 'witch', and also in the class 1 word Шаблон:Lang 'cat', the m is pronounced very short and does not form a separate syllable. In Southern Region dialects of Malawi, the syllabic m in words like Шаблон:Lang 'lion' is pronounced in a homorganic manner, i.e. Шаблон:IPA (with three syllables), but in the Central Region, it is pronounced as it is written, i.e. Шаблон:IPA.[39]
- n, in combinations such as nj, Шаблон:Transliteration, nkh etc., is assimilated to the following consonant, that is, it is pronounced Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA as appropriate. In words of class 9, such as Шаблон:Lang 'snake' or Шаблон:Lang 'minister' it is pronounced very short, as part of the following syllable. However, [n] can also be syllabic, when it is contracted from ndi 'it is' or ndí 'and', e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'and to go'; also in the remote past continuous tense, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'he used to go'. In some borrowed words such as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang the combinations nk and nt with non-syllabic n can be found but not in native words.
- ng is pronounced Шаблон:IPA as in 'finger' and ng’ is pronounced Шаблон:IPA as in 'singer'. Both of these consonants can occur at the beginning of a word: Шаблон:Lang 'kudu', Шаблон:Lang 'cow or ox'.
- w in the combinations awu, ewu, iwu, owa, uwa (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'voice', Шаблон:Lang 'road', Шаблон:Lang 'sound', Шаблон:Lang 'enter', Шаблон:Lang 'flower') although often written is generally not pronounced.[40] Combinations such as gwo or mwo are not found; thus Шаблон:Lang (short for Шаблон:Lang)[41] 'he is good' but Шаблон:Lang (short for Шаблон:Lang) 'he is bad'; Шаблон:Lang 'stone' but Шаблон:Lang 'fire'.
- ŵ, a "closely lip-rounded Шаблон:IPA with the tongue in the close-i position",[42] was formerly used in Central Region dialects but is now rarely heard, usually being replaced by 'w'. ("It is doubtful whether the majority of speakers have Шаблон:IPA in their phoneme inventory" (Kishindo).)[43] The symbol 'ŵ' is generally omitted in current publications such as newspapers.[44] In the dialects that use the sound, it is found only before a, i, and e, while before o and u it becomes Шаблон:IPA.[45] To some linguists (e.g. Watkins) it sounds similar to the Spanish Шаблон:IPA.[45]
- zy (as in Шаблон:Lang 'be upside down like a bat') can be pronounced Шаблон:IPA.[46]
Tones
Шаблон:Main Like most other Bantu languages, Chewa is a tonal language; that is to say, the pitch of the syllables (high or low) plays an important role in it. Tone is used in various ways in the language. First of all, each word has its own tonal pattern, for example:[47]
- Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'person' (Low, Low)
- Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'dog' (Rising, High)
- Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'goat' (Falling, Low)
- Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'maize' (High, Low, Low)
Usually there is only one high tone in a word (generally on one of the last three syllables), or none. However, in compound words there can be more than one high tone, for example:
- Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'food' (High, High, High; derived from Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang, 'a thing of eating')
A second important use of tone is in the verb. Each tense of the verb has its own characteristic tonal pattern (negative tenses usually have a different pattern from positive ones).[48] For example, the present habitual has high tones on the initial syllable and the penultimate, the other syllables being low:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I (usually) help'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I (usually) go'
The recent past continuous and present continuous, on the other hand, have a tone on the third syllable:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I was helping'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I was going'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I am helping'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I am going'
Tones can also indicate whether a verb is being used in a main clause or in a dependent clause such as a relative clause:[49][50]
- Шаблон:Lang 'the week has ended'
- Шаблон:Lang 'the week which has ended (i.e. last week)'
A third use of tones in Chewa is to show phrasing and sentence intonation. For example, immediately before a pause in the middle of a sentence the speaker's voice tends to rise up; this rise is referred to as a boundary tone.[51] Other intonational tones are sometimes heard, for example a rising or falling tone at the end of a yes–no question.[52][53]
Grammar
Noun classes
Chewa nouns are divided for convenience into a number of classes, which are referred to by the Malawians themselves by names such as "Mu-A-",[54] but by Bantu specialists by numbers such as "1/2", corresponding to the classes in other Bantu languages. Conventionally, they are grouped into pairs of singular and plural. However, irregular pairings are also possible, especially with loanwords; for example, Шаблон:Lang 'bank', which takes the concords of class 9 in the singular, has a plural Шаблон:Lang (class 6).[55]
When assigning nouns to a particular class, initially the prefix of the noun is used. Where there is no prefix, or where the prefix is ambiguous, the concords (see below) are used as a guide to the noun class. For example, Шаблон:Lang 'possessions' is put in class 1, since it takes the class 1 demonstrative Шаблон:Lang 'this'.[56]
Some nouns belong to one class only, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (class 1), Шаблон:Lang 'beer' (class 3), Шаблон:Lang 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (class 6), Шаблон:Lang 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (class 14), and do not change between singular and plural. Despite this, such words can still be counted if appropriate: Шаблон:Lang 'two tomatoes', Шаблон:Lang 'two beers', Шаблон:Lang 'one shirt', Шаблон:Lang 'one mosquito'.[57]
Class 11 (Lu-) is not found in Chewa. Words like Шаблон:Lang 'razor' and Шаблон:Lang 'skill' are considered to belong to class 5/6 (Li-Ma-) and take the concords of that class.[58]
- Mu-A- (1/2): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'person'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'teacher'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'child'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(1a/2): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'dog'. Class 1a refers to nouns which have no Шаблон:Lang prefix.
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:SpaceThe plural Шаблон:Lang is used only for humans and animals. It can also be used for respect, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'our teacher'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(1a/6): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'key'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'dance'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(1a): Шаблон:Lang 'Шаблон:Not a typo'; Шаблон:Lang 'luggage, furniture'; Шаблон:Lang 'fertilizer' (no pl.) - Mu-Mi- (3/4): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'village'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'tree'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'life'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'village'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(3): Шаблон:Lang 'beer'; Шаблон:Lang 'fire'; Шаблон:Lang 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (no pl.) - Li-Ma- (5/6): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'name'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'problem'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'hoe'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'eye'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:SpaceOften the first consonant is softened or omitted in the plural in this class.
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(6): Шаблон:Lang 'water', Шаблон:Lang 'medicine', Шаблон:Lang 'place' (no sg.) - Chi-Zi- (7/8): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'thing'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'year'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(7): Шаблон:Lang 'maize'; Шаблон:Lang 'love' (no pl.) - I-Zi- (9/10): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'house'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'goat'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(10): Шаблон:Lang 'beard'; Шаблон:Lang 'relish'; Шаблон:Lang 'intelligence' (no sg.)
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(9/6): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'bank' - Ka-Ti- (12/13): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'baby'; Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'small thing'
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(12): Шаблон:Lang 'method of taking care'; Шаблон:Lang 'way of dancing' (no pl.)
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(13): Шаблон:Lang 'sleep' (no sg.) - U-Ma- (14): Шаблон:Lang 'night time'; Шаблон:Lang 'farming'; Шаблон:Lang 'Шаблон:Not a typo' (no pl.)
Шаблон:SpaceШаблон:Space(14/6): Шаблон:Lang pl. Шаблон:Lang 'bow'
Infinitive class:
- Ku- (15): Шаблон:Lang 'to see, seeing'
Locative classes:
- Pa- (16): Шаблон:Lang 'mouth'
- Ku- (17): Шаблон:Lang 'neck'
- Mu- (18): Шаблон:Lang 'inside the mouth'
Concords
Pronouns, adjectives, and verbs have to show agreement with nouns in Chichewa. This is done by means of prefixes, for example:
- Шаблон:Lang 'this is my child' (class 1)
- Шаблон:Lang 'these are my children' (class 2)
- Шаблон:Lang 'this is my maize' (class 7)
- Шаблон:Lang 'this is my house' (class 9)
Class 2 (the plural of class 1) is often used for respect when referring to elders. According to Corbett and Mtenje, a word like Шаблон:Lang 'father', even though it is singular, will take plural concords (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'my father is walking, I see him'); they note that to use the singular object-marker Шаблон:Lang would be 'grossly impolite'.[59]
The various prefixes are shown on the table below:
There are 17 different noun classes, but because some of them share concords there are in fact only 12 distinct sets of prefixes.
Examples of the use of concords
In the examples below, the concords are illustrated mainly with nouns of classes 1 and 2.
Demonstratives 'this' and 'that'
- Шаблон:Lang 'who is this?'; Шаблон:Lang 'who are these?' (or: 'who is this gentleman?' (respectful))
- Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) 'this child'; Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) 'these children'
- Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) 'that child'; Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) 'those children'
The shortened forms are more common.
Pronominal Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang etc.
Prefixed by a supporting vowel, or by Шаблон:Lang 'with' or Шаблон:Lang 'it is', these make the pronouns 'he/she' and 'they':
- Шаблон:Lang 'he/she'; Шаблон:Lang 'they' (or 'he/she' (respectful))
- Шаблон:Lang 'with him/her'; Шаблон:Lang 'with them' (or 'with him/her' (respectful))
- Шаблон:Lang 'it is he/she'; Шаблон:Lang 'it is they'
For classes other than classes 1 and 2, a demonstrative is used instead of a freestanding pronoun, for example in class 6 Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. But forms prefixed by Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang such as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are found.
Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang
The three pronominal adjectives Шаблон:Lang 'all', Шаблон:Lang 'alone', Шаблон:Lang 'that same' (or 'who') have the same pronominal concords Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, this time as prefixes:
- Шаблон:Lang 'the whole of Malawi'
- Шаблон:Lang 'all the children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'on his/her own'
- Шаблон:Lang 'on their own'
- Шаблон:Lang 'that same child'
- Шаблон:Lang 'those same children'
In classes 2 and 6, Шаблон:Lang often becomes Шаблон:Lang (e.g. Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang etc.).
The commonly used word Шаблон:Lang 'every' is compounded from the verb Шаблон:Lang 'who is' and Шаблон:Lang 'all'. Both parts of the word have concords:
- Шаблон:Lang 'every child'
- Шаблон:Lang 'every two children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'every house' (class 4)
- Шаблон:Lang 'every year' (class 7)
Subject prefix
As with other Bantu languages, all Chewa verbs have a prefix which agrees with the subject of the verb. In modern Chewa, the class 2 prefix (formerly Шаблон:Lang) has become Шаблон:Lang, identical with the prefix of class 1:
- Шаблон:Lang 'the child will go'; Шаблон:Lang 'the children will go'
The perfect tense (Шаблон:Lang 'he/she has gone', Шаблон:Lang 'they have gone') has different subject prefixes from the other tenses (see below).
Шаблон:Lang 'who'
The relative pronoun Шаблон:Lang 'who' and demonstrative Шаблон:Lang use the same prefixes as a verb:
- Шаблон:Lang 'the child who'
- Шаблон:Lang 'the children who'
- Шаблон:Lang 'that child'
- Шаблон:Lang 'those children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'that house'
- Шаблон:Lang 'those houses'
Object prefix
The use of an object prefix is not obligatory in Chewa (for example, Шаблон:Lang means 'I have bought (them)'). If used, it comes immediately before the verb root, and agrees with the object:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen him/her'; Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen them' (sometimes shortened to Шаблон:Lang).
The object prefix of classes 16, 17, and 18 is usually replaced by a suffix: Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen inside it'.
The same prefix with verbs with the applicative suffix Шаблон:Lang represents the indirect object, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'I have written to him'.
Numeral concords
Numeral concords are used with numbers Шаблон:Lang 'one', Шаблон:Lang 'two', Шаблон:Lang 'three', Шаблон:Lang 'four', Шаблон:Lang 'five', and the words Шаблон:Lang 'how many', Шаблон:Lang 'several':
- Шаблон:Lang 'one child'; Шаблон:Lang 'two children'; Шаблон:Lang 'how many children?'
The class 1 prefix Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang before Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang 'two tomatoes'.
The number Шаблон:Lang 'ten' has no concord.
Demonstratives Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang
The demonstrative pronouns Шаблон:Lang 'that one you know' and Шаблон:Lang 'this one we are in' take the concords Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in classes 1 and 2. For semantic reasons, class 1 Шаблон:Lang is rare:
- Шаблон:Lang 'that child (the one you know)'; Шаблон:Lang 'those children' (those ones you know)
- Шаблон:Lang 'this month (we are in)' (class 3); Шаблон:Lang 'these days'; Шаблон:Lang 'here in Malawi (where we are now)' (class 17).
Perfect tense subject prefix
The same concords Шаблон:Lang (derived from Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang, combined with the vowel Шаблон:Lang, make the subject prefix of the perfect tense. In the plural the two prefixes Шаблон:Lang combine into a single vowel:
- Шаблон:Lang 'the child has gone; Шаблон:Lang 'the children have gone'
Possessive concord
The concords Шаблон:Lang (derived from Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang are also found in the word Шаблон:Lang 'of':
- Шаблон:Lang 'Mphatso's child'; Шаблон:Lang 'Mphatso's children'
The same concords are used in possessive adjectives Шаблон:Lang 'my', Шаблон:Lang 'your', Шаблон:Lang 'his/her/its/their', Шаблон:Lang 'our', Шаблон:Lang 'your (plural or respectful singular), Шаблон:Lang 'their'/'his/her' (respectful):
- Шаблон:Lang 'my child'; Шаблон:Lang 'my children'
Шаблон:Lang 'their' is used only of people (Шаблон:Lang is used for things).
Шаблон:Lang 'of' can be combined with nouns or adverbs to make adjectives:
- Шаблон:Lang 'an intelligent child'; Шаблон:Lang 'intelligent children'
- Шаблон:Lang a good child'; Шаблон:Lang 'good children'
In the same way Шаблон:Lang 'of' combines with the Шаблон:Lang of the infinitive to make verbal adjectives. Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang usually shortens to Шаблон:Lang, except where the verb root is monosyllabic:
- Шаблон:Lang 'a beautiful child'; Шаблон:Lang 'beautiful children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'a thieving child'; Шаблон:Lang 'thieving children'
Шаблон:Lang 'other' and Шаблон:Lang 'real'
The same Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang concords are found with the words Шаблон:Lang 'other' and Шаблон:Lang 'real'. In combination with these words the plural concord Шаблон:Lang is converted to Шаблон:Lang:
- Шаблон:Lang 'a certain child, another child'; Шаблон:Lang 'certain children, other children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'a real child'; Шаблон:Lang 'real children'
Double-prefix adjectives
Certain adjectives (Шаблон:Lang 'big', Шаблон:Lang 'small'; Шаблон:Lang 'male', Шаблон:Lang 'female'; Шаблон:Lang 'long', 'tall', Шаблон:Lang 'short'; Шаблон:Lang 'fresh') have a double prefix, combining the possessive concord (Шаблон:Lang) and the number concord (Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang):
- Шаблон:Lang 'a big child'; Шаблон:Lang 'big children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'a small child'; Шаблон:Lang 'little children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'a male child'; Шаблон:Lang 'male children'
- Шаблон:Lang 'a female child'; Шаблон:Lang 'female children'
Historic changes
Early dictionaries, such as those of Rebmann, and of Scott and Hetherwick, show that formerly the number of concords was greater. The following changes have taken place:
- Class 2 formerly had the concord Шаблон:Lang (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'these people'), but this has now become Шаблон:Lang for most speakers.
- Class 8, formerly using Шаблон:Lang (Southern Region) or Шаблон:Lang (Central Region) (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'two years'),[60] has now adopted the concords of class 10.
- Class 6, formerly with Шаблон:Lang concords (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'these eggs'),[61] now has the concords of class 2.
- Class 11 (Шаблон:Lang) had already been assimilated to class 5 even in the 19th century, although it still exists in some dialects of the neighbouring language Tumbuka.
- Class 14, formerly with Шаблон:Lang concords (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'my flour'),[62] now has the same concords as class 3.
- Class 13 (Шаблон:Lang) had Шаблон:Lang in Rebmann's time (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'these small knives'). This prefix still survives in words like Шаблон:Lang 'sleep'.
In addition, classes 4 and 9, and classes 15 and 17 have identical concords, so the total number of concord sets (singular and plural) is now twelve.
Verbs
Formation of tenses
Tenses in Chichewa are differentiated in two ways, by their tense-marker (a tense–aspect–mood prefix), and by their tonal pattern. Sometimes two tenses have the same tense-marker and differ in their tonal pattern alone. In the following examples, the tense-marker is underlined:[63][64]
- Шаблон:Lang 'I am buying'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I usually buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I was buying', 'I used to buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I will buy (tomorrow or in future)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I will buy (when I get there)'
One tense has no tense-marker:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I will buy (soon)'
Tenses can be modified further by adding certain other prefixes, called 'aspect-markers', after the tense-marker. These are Шаблон:Lang 'always, usually' Шаблон:Lang 'go and', Шаблон:Lang 'come and' or 'in future', and Шаблон:Lang 'only', 'just'. These prefixes can also be used on their own, as tense-markers in their own right (compare the use of Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in the list of tenses above). For example:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I am always buying'[65]
- Шаблон:Lang 'I went and bought'[66]
- Шаблон:Lang 'I just usually buy'[67]
Compound tenses, such as the following, are also found in Chichewa:[68]
- Шаблон:Lang 'I have been buying'
Subject-marker
Chichewa verbs (with the exception of the imperative mood and infinitive) begin with a prefix agreeing grammatically with the subject.[69] This prefix is referred to by some grammarians as the 'subject-marker'.[70]
- Шаблон:Lang 'we are going'
- Шаблон:Lang (for *Шаблон:Lang) 'the tree has fallen'[71]
The subject-marker can be:
- Personal: Шаблон:Lang 'I', Шаблон:Lang 'you (singular)', Шаблон:Lang 'he, she', Шаблон:Lang 'we', Шаблон:Lang 'you (plural or polite)', Шаблон:Lang 'they'; 'he/she (respectful or polite). (In the perfect tense, the subject-marker for 'he, she' is Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang 'he has gone'.)[72]
- Impersonal: Шаблон:Lang (class 1, 2 or 6), Шаблон:Lang (class 3 or 14), Шаблон:Lang (class 4 or 9), Шаблон:Lang (class 5), etc.
- Locative: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang
An example of a locative subject-marker is:
- Шаблон:Lang 'in the water there are fish'[73]
Both the 2nd and the 3rd person plural pronouns and subject-markers are used respectfully to refer to a single person:[74]
- Шаблон:Lang 'you are going' (plural or respectful)
- Шаблон:Lang 'they have gone' or 'he/she has gone' (respectful)
Except in the perfect tense, the 3rd person subject marker when used of people is the same whether singular or plural. So in the present tense the 3rd person subject-marker is a-:
- Шаблон:Lang 'he/she is going'
- Шаблон:Lang 'they are going', 'he/she is going' (respectful)
But in the perfect tense wa- (singular) contrasts with a- (plural or respectful):
- Шаблон:Lang 'he/she has gone'
- Шаблон:Lang 'they have gone', 'he/she has gone' (respectful)
When the subject is a noun not in class 1, the appropriate class prefix is used even if referring to a person:
- Шаблон:Lang 'the chief is going' (class 9)
- Шаблон:Lang 'the babies are going' (class 13)
Object-marker
An object-marker can also optionally be added to the verb; if one is added it goes immediately before the verb-stem.[75] The 2nd person plural adds Шаблон:Lang after the verb:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I love you' (Шаблон:Lang = 'I', Шаблон:Lang = 'you')
- Шаблон:Lang 'I love you' (plural or formal)
The object-marker can be:
- Personal: Шаблон:Lang 'me', Шаблон:Lang 'you', Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang 'him, her', Шаблон:Lang 'us', Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang 'them', 'him/her (polite)'.
- Impersonal: Шаблон:Lang (class 1), Шаблон:Lang (class 2), Шаблон:Lang (class 3 or 14), etc.
- Locative: e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'you know the inside of the house';[76] but usually a locative suffix is used instead: Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen inside it'
- Reflexive: Шаблон:Lang 'himself', 'herself', 'themselves', 'myself', etc.
When used with a toneless verb tense such as the perfect, the object-marker has a high tone, but in some tenses such as the present habitual, the tone is lost:[77]
- Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen him'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I usually see him'
With the imperative or subjunctive, the tone of the object-marker goes on the syllable following it, and the imperative ending changes to -e:[78]
- Шаблон:Lang 'could you give me some rice?'
- Шаблон:Lang 'help me!'
- Шаблон:Lang 'you should help him'
Variety of tenses
Шаблон:Main Chewa has a large number of tenses, some of which differ in some respects from the tenses met with in European languages. The distinction between one tense and another is made partly by the use of prefixes, such as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, and partly by the intonation of the verb, since each tense has its own particular tonal pattern.
Near vs. remote
There are five time-frames (remote past, near past, present, near future, and remote future). The distinction between near and remote tenses is not exact. The remote tenses are not used of events of today or last night, but the near tenses can sometimes be used of events of earlier or later than today:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I bought (yesterday or some days ago)' (remote perfect)
- Шаблон:Lang 'I have bought (today)' (perfect)
- Шаблон:Lang 'I am buying (now)' (present)
- Шаблон:Lang 'I'll buy (today)' (near future)
- Шаблон:Lang 'I'll buy (tomorrow or later)' (remote future)
Perfect vs. past
Another distinction is between perfect and past.[79][80] The two perfect tenses imply that the event described had an outcome which still obtains now. The two past tenses usually imply that the result of the action has been reversed in some way:
Recent time (today):
- Шаблон:Lang 'I have bought it' (and still have it) (Perfect)
- Шаблон:Lang 'I bought it (but no longer have it)' (Recent Past)
Remote time (yesterday or earlier):
- Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang 'I bought it' (and still have it) (Remote Perfect)
- Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang 'I bought it (but no longer have it)' (Remote Past)
When used in narrating a series of events, however, these implications are somewhat relaxed: the Remote Perfect is used for narrating earlier events, and the Recent Past for narrating events of today.[81]
Perfective vs. imperfective
Another important distinction in Chewa is between perfective and imperfective aspect. Imperfective tenses are used for situations, events which occur regularly, or events which are temporarily in progress:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I used to buy', 'I was buying (a long time ago)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I was buying (today)', 'I used to buy (a long time ago)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I will be buying (regularly)'
In the present tense only, there is a further distinction between habitual and progressive:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I buy (regularly)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I am buying (currently)'
Other tenses
One future tense not found in European languages is the Шаблон:Lang future, which 'might presuppose an unspoken conditional clause':[82]
- Шаблон:Lang 'I will buy' (if I go there, or when I get there)
There are also various subjunctive and potential mood tenses, such as:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I should buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I should be buying'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I should buy (in future)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I can buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I would have bought'
Negative tenses
Negative tenses, if they are main verbs, are made with the prefix Шаблон:Lang. They differ in intonation from the positive tenses.[83] The negative of the Шаблон:Lang tense has the ending Шаблон:Lang instead of Шаблон:Lang:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I don't buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't buy'
Tenses which mean 'will not' or 'have not yet' have a single tone on the penultimate syllable:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I won't buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'I haven't bought (it) yet'
Infinitives, participial verbs, and the subjunctive make their negative with Шаблон:Lang, which is added after the subject-prefix instead of before it. They similarly have a single tone on the penultimate syllable:
- Шаблон:Lang 'I should not buy'[84]
- Шаблон:Lang 'not to buy'
Dependent clause tenses
The tenses used in certain kinds of dependent clauses (such as relative clauses and some types of temporal clauses) differ from those used in main clauses. Dependent verbs often have a tone on the first syllable. Sometimes this change of tone alone is sufficient to show that the verb is being used in a dependent clause.[85][49] Compare for example:
- Шаблон:Lang 'he is buying'
- Шаблон:Lang 'when he is buying' or 'who is buying'
Other commonly used dependent tenses are the following:
- Шаблон:Lang 'after I bought/buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'before I bought/buy'
There is also a series of tenses using a toneless Шаблон:Lang meaning 'when' of 'if', for example:[86][87]
- Шаблон:Lang 'when/if I buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'if in future I buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'whenever I buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'if I had bought'
Verb extensions
After the verb stem one or more extensions may be added. The extensions modify the meaning of the verb, for example:
- Шаблон:Lang 'buy'
- Шаблон:Lang 'buy for' or 'buy with' (applicative)
- Шаблон:Lang 'buy for one another' (applicative + reciprocal)
- Шаблон:Lang 'get bought', 'be for sale' (stative)
- Шаблон:Lang 'cause to get bought, i.e. sell' (causative)
- Шаблон:Lang 'be sold (by someone)' (causative + passive)
The extensions Шаблон:Lang and its intransitive form Шаблон:Lang are called 'reversive'. They give meanings such as 'open', 'undo', 'unstick', 'uncover':
- Шаблон:Lang 'open (something)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'become open'
- Шаблон:Lang 'break something off'
- Шаблон:Lang 'get broken off'
- Шаблон:Lang 'undo, loosen'
- Шаблон:Lang 'become loose, relaxed'
Most extensions, apart from the reciprocal Шаблон:Lang 'one another', have two possible forms, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. The forms with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are used when the verb stem has Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang. u can also follow e:
- Шаблон:Lang 'fail to happen'
- Шаблон:Lang 'cook for someone'
- Шаблон:Lang 'sell'
- Шаблон:Lang 'melt (transitive)'
- Шаблон:Lang 'open'
The forms with Шаблон:Lang are used if the verb stem is monosyllabic or has an Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang in it:[88]
- Шаблон:Lang 'eat with'
- Шаблон:Lang 'repeat'
- Шаблон:Lang 'come from'
Extensions with o are used only with a monosyllabic stem or one with o:
- Шаблон:Lang 'get broken off'
- Шаблон:Lang 'remove grains of corn from the cob'
The extension Шаблон:Lang with a low tone is causative, but when it has a high tone it is intensive. The high tone is heard on the final syllable of the verb:
- Шаблон:Lang 'look carefully'
- Шаблон:Lang 'try hard'
The applicative Шаблон:Lang can also sometimes be intensive, in which case it has a high tone:
- Шаблон:Lang 'carry on, keep going'
Verbs with Шаблон:Lang when they have a stative or intransitive meaning also usually have a high tone:
- Шаблон:Lang 'happen'
- Шаблон:Lang 'melt (intransitive), get melted'
However, there are some low-toned exceptions such as Шаблон:Lang 'seem' or Шаблон:Lang 'set off'.[89]
Literature
Story-writers and playwrights
The following have written published stories, novels, or plays in the Chewa language:
- William Chafulumira[90]
- Samuel Josia Ntara or Nthala[91]
- John Gwengwe[92]
- E.J. Chadza
- Steve Chimombo
- Whyghtone Kamthunzi
- Francis Moto
- Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers
- Willie Zingani
- Barnaba Zingani
- Jolly Maxwell Ntaba[93]
Poets
Town Nyanja (Zambia)
An urban variety of Nyanja, sometimes called Town Nyanja, is the lingua franca of the Zambian capital Lusaka and is widely spoken as a second language throughout Zambia. This is a distinctive Nyanja dialect with some features of Nsenga, although the language also incorporates large numbers of English-derived words, as well as showing influence from other Zambian languages such as Bemba. Town Nyanja has no official status, and the presence of large numbers of loanwords and colloquial expressions has given rise to the misconception that it is an unstructured mixture of languages or a form of slang.
The fact that the standard Nyanja used in schools differs dramatically from the variety actually spoken in Lusaka has been identified as a barrier to the acquisition of literacy among Zambian children.[94]
The concords in Town Nyanja differ from those in Chichewa described above. For example, classes 5 and 6 both have the concord ya- instead of la- and a-; class 8 has va- instead of za-; and 13 has twa- instead of ta-.[95] In addition, the subject and object marker for "I" is ni- rather than ndi-, and that for "they" is βa- (spelled "ba-") rather than a-.[96]
Sample phrases
| English | Chewa (Malawi)[97] | Town Nyanja (Lusaka)[98] |
|---|---|---|
| How are you? | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| I'm fine | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang |
| Thank you | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Yes | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| No | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| What's your name? | Шаблон:Lang[99] | Шаблон:Lang |
| My name is... | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| How many children do you have? | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang ('b' = [ŵ]) |
| I have two children | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| I want... | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Food | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Water | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| How much is it? | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| See you tomorrow | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| I love you | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Sample paragraph in Chichewa (Mboni za Yehova)
Ndife anthu ochokera m’mitundu, zikhalidwe ndiponso zinenero zosiyanasiyana, koma ndife ogwirizana kwambiri chifukwa cholinga chathu n’chimodzi. Cholinga chathu chachikulu n’kulemekeza Yehova, Mulungu wotchulidwa m’Baibulo ndiponso Mlengi wa zinthu zonse. Timayesetsa kutsanzira Yesu Khristu ndipo timanyadira kutchedwa Akhristu. Nthawi zonse aliyense wa ife amathera nthawi yake pothandiza ena kuphunzira Baibulo ndiponso za Ufumu wa Mulungu. Timatchedwa kuti Mboni za Yehova chifukwa choti timachitira umboni, kapena kuti kulalikira za Yehova Mulungu ndi Ufumu wake.
Translation
We are people from different races, cultures and languages, but we are very united because we have the same goal. Our main goal is to honor Jehovah, the God mentioned in the Bible and the Creator of all things. We try to imitate Jesus Christ and we are proud to be called Christians. Each of us always spends our time helping others learn the Bible and about the Kingdom of God. We are called Jehovah's Witnesses because we testify, or preach about Jehovah God and his Kingdom.
References
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- Wade-Lewis, Margaret (2005). "Mark Hanna Watkins". Histories of Anthropology Annual, vol 1, pp. 181–218.
- Watkins, Mark Hanna (1937). A Grammar of Chichewa: A Bantu Language of British Central Africa, Language, Vol. 13, No. 2, Language Dissertation No. 24 (Apr.-Jun., 1937), pp. 5–158.
- Woodward, M.E., (1895). A vocabulary of English–Chinyanja and Chinyanja–English as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
External links
Шаблон:InterWiki Шаблон:Wikivoyage
- Omotola Akindipe, George Kondowe, Learn Chichewa on Mofeko
- Online English–Chichewa Dictionary
- My First Chewa Dictionary kasahorow
- Chichewa at Omniglot
- English / Chichewa (Nyanja) Online Dictionary
- Шаблон:Lang Bible, 1922 version digitalized
- Complete Bible (Шаблон:Lang, 1922, revised 1936) in Nyanja, chapter by chapter
- Buku Lopatulika Bible, 2014 version
- Johnson's 1912 translation of Genesis 1–3 into the Likoma dialect, in various formats
- Johnson's translation of the Book of Common Prayer in the Likoma dialect (1909).
- Holy Quran in Chichewa
- Recordings of pages of Scotton & Orr's Learning Chichewa Шаблон:Webarchive
- Willie T. Zingani, Шаблон:Lang "Come and see" Chichewa book in pdf form.
- Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers, [1]. Agoloso Presents – Nkhokwe ya Zining'a za m'Chichewa.pdf.
- Bonwell Kadyankena Rodgers, [2]. Agoloso Presents – Mikuluwiko ya Patsokwe.pdf.
- OLAC resources in and about the Nyanja language
- Zodiak Radio live radio in English and Chichewa
- M.V.B. Mangoche A Visitor's Notebook of Chichewa Elementary phrasebook.
- Complete recording of Шаблон:Lang New TestamentШаблон:Dead link (without text)
Шаблон:Languages of Malawi Шаблон:Languages of Zambia Шаблон:Languages of Mozambique Шаблон:Languages of Zimbabwe Шаблон:Narrow Bantu languages
- ↑ cf. Kiswahili for the Swahili language.
- ↑ Kishindo (2001), p.265.
- ↑ For spelling Chinyanja cf. Lehmann (1977). Both spellings are used in Zambia Daily Mail articles.
- ↑ Kiso (2012), pp.21ff.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Kamwendo (2004), p.278.
- ↑ See Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi (2006), pp.38–40 for a list of publications.
- ↑ Mchombo (2006).
- ↑ Malawian Writers and Their Country, edited by Bridgette Kasuka, published on Lulu.com, page 143Шаблон:Self-published source
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Marwick (1963)
- ↑ Newitt (1982).
- ↑ Marwick (1964).
- ↑ Marwick (1963), p.383.
- ↑ Goodson (2011).
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 46.
- ↑ Rebman (1877), preface.
- ↑ Rebmann (1877) s.v. M'ombo.
- ↑ Englund (2022)
- ↑ The UMCA in Malawi, p 126, James Tengatenga, 2010: "Two important pieces of work have been accomplished during these later years. First, the completion by Archdeacon Johnson of the Bible in Chinyanja, and secondly, the completed Chinyanja prayer book in 1908."
- ↑ Bible Society of Malawi newsletter, 24 February 2016 Шаблон:Webarchive.
- ↑ Watkins (1937), p. 7.
- ↑ Wade-Lewis (2005).
- ↑ Batteen (2005).
- ↑ Englund (2006).
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.201.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), pp. 228–9.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 95: "A high vowel is very short and not very vowel-like, so inserting one leads to minimal deviation from the pronunciation of the word in the source language."
- ↑ See Kishindo (2001), p.267.
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.200.
- ↑ Scotton & Orr (1980), p.15; Atkins (1950), p.208.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2018), p. 43.
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.208.
- ↑ Stevick (1965), p.xii.
- ↑ Scotton & Orr (1980), p.18.
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.207; Stevick et al. (1965), p.xii; Downing & Mtenje (2018), p. 43, quoting Price (1946).
- ↑ Kishindo (2001), p.268.
- ↑ See also Chirwa (2008).
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.209.
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.204.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 99.
- ↑ Atkins (1950), p.205.
- ↑ Kishindo (2001), p.270.
- ↑ The Nation online news in Chichewa; Zodiak Radio online news in Chichewa.
- ↑ 45,0 45,1 Watkins (1937), p.13.
- ↑ Mchombo (2004), p.10.
- ↑ Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja (2002).
- ↑ Mtenje (1986), pp.195; 203–4; 244ff; Mtenje (1987), p.173.
- ↑ 49,0 49,1 Stevick et al. (1965), p.147.
- ↑ Mchombo (2004), pp.17–18.
- ↑ Kanerva (1990), p.147.
- ↑ Hullquist (1988), p.145.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), p. 263.
- ↑ E.g. Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja.
- ↑ Paas (2015).
- ↑ Kunkeyani (2007), p.154.
- ↑ Paas (2015) s.v.
- ↑ Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja.
- ↑ Corbett & Mtenje (1987), p. 10.
- ↑ Scott & Hetherwick (1929), s.v. Ibsi; Rebmann (1877) s.v. Chiko, Psiwili/Pfiwili; Watkins (1937), p. 37.
- ↑ Rebmann (1877) s.v. Aya, Mame, Mano, Yonse; cf Goodson (2011).
- ↑ Rebmann (1877), s.v. Ufa; Watkins (1937), pp. 33–4.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), pp.39ff, 77ff.
- ↑ For tones, Mtenje (1986).
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p.126.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p.115.
- ↑ Salaun, p.49.
- ↑ Kiso (2012), p.107.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), pp.19ff.
- ↑ Hyman & Mtenje (1999a).
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p.52.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p.36.
- ↑ Salaun, p.16.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), pp. 21, 23.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), pp.26ff.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p.64.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), pp. 143, 162.
- ↑ Downing & Mtenje (2017), pp. 142, 145.
- ↑ Watkins (1937), pp. 55–6.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p. 77.
- ↑ Kiso (2012), pp. 110–111.
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p. 116.
- ↑ Mtenje (1986), p. 244ff.
- ↑ Stevick et al. (1965), p.222.
- ↑ Mchombo (2004), pp. 17–18.
- ↑ Salaun, p.70
- ↑ Kanerva (1990), p.24.
- ↑ Salaun, p.78.
- ↑ Hyman & Mtenje (1999b).
- ↑ "Chafulumira, William". Dictionary of African Christian Biography.
- ↑ WorldCat list of Ntara's publications
- ↑ "Whither Vernacular Fiction?". The Nation newspaper May 26, 2017.
- ↑ "Jolly Maxwell Ntaba". The Nation newspaper April 4, 2014
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Gray, Lubasi, & Bwalya (2013), p. 11
- ↑ Gray, Lubasi & Bwalya (2013) p. 16.
- ↑ Paas (2016).
- ↑ Phrases from Gray et al. (2013).
- ↑ Maxson (2011), p. 112.
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