Английская Википедия:Cheyenne language

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language The Cheyenne language (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:IPA) (informal spelling Шаблон:Lang), is the Native American language spoken by the Cheyenne people, predominantly in present-day Montana and Oklahoma, in the United States. It is part of the Algonquian language family. Like all other Algonquian languages, it has complex agglutinative polysynthetic morphology. This language is considered endangered, at different levels, in both states.

Classification

Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages, which is a sub-category of the Algic languages. Specifically, it is a Plains Algonquian language. However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot, is an areal rather than genetic subgrouping.

Geographic distribution

Файл:Tipi parts Cheyenne.JPG
Tipi parts in Cheyenne

Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana and in Oklahoma. On the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in March 2013 there were approximately 10,050 enrolled tribal members, of which about 4,939 resided on the reservation; slightly more than a quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English.[1]

Current status

The Cheyenne language is considered "definitely endangered" in Montana and "critically endangered" in Oklahoma by the UNESCO. In Montana the number of speakers were about 1700 in 2012 according to the UNESCO. In 2021 there were approximately 300 elderly speakers. In 2021 in Oklahoma there were fewer than 20 elderly speakers. There is no current information on any other state in the United States regarding the Cheyenne language.[2]

The 2017 film Hostiles features extensive dialogue in Northern Cheyenne. The film's producers hired experts in the language and culture to ensure authenticity.[3]

Revitalization efforts and education

In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of Chief Dull Knife College applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $50,000 language preservation planning grant. The department wanted to use this money to assess the degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Following this, the department wanted to use the compiled data to establish long-term community language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and curriculum guide.[4] In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual Language Immersion Camp. This event was organized into two weeklong sessions, and its aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5–10-year-olds, while the second session focused on 11- to 18-year-olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The state of Montana has passed a law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes.[5] Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana, at Southwestern Oklahoma State University, and at Watonga High School in Watonga, Oklahoma. There are also holistic approaches to language revitalization taken upon by the Cheyenne people to try and keep their language vital. This is done by recognizing the integrated nature of the Cheyenne language with games, crafts, and ceremony which are integrated in youth and community programs.[6] The language is very often not being taught in the home so instead of just teaching grammar as a revitalization effort, holistic approaches attract more attention from new speakers and educate the new generation and counter language and culture loss.

Phonology

Vowels

Cheyenne has three basic vowel qualities Шаблон:IPA. The phoneme called Шаблон:IPA here is usually pronounced as a phonetic Шаблон:IPA, and sometimes varies to Шаблон:IPA.

These vowel qualities take four tones: high tone as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA); low tone as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA; mid tone as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA; and rising tone as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Tones are often not represented in the orthography. Vowels can also be voiceless (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA).[7] The high and low tones are phonemic, while voiceless vowels' occurrence is determined by the phonetic context, making them allophones of the voiced vowels.

Vowels
Front Central Back
Mid Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Low Шаблон:IPAlink

Consonants

Consonants
Bilabial Dental Post-
alveolar 		Velar Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Plosive Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Fricative Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink (Шаблон:IPAlink) Шаблон:IPAlink

Orthography

The Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation orthography". In other words, it is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. Шаблон:Angbr represents the phoneme symbolized Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:Angbr represents Шаблон:IPA.

Vowels

Consonants

Tones

  • á, é, ó – high tone
  • ȧ, ė, ȯ or â, ê, ô – voiceless or whispered

Low tone is usually unmarked.[8]

Feature system for phonemes

The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows:Шаблон:Sfn

  • Oral: primary articulation is oral (vs. at the glottis)
  • Vocoid (voc): central resonant (oral) continuant
  • Syllabic (syl): nuclear to syllable (vs. marginal)
  • Closure (clos): stoppage of air flow at point of primary articulation ['non-continuant']
  • Nasal (nas): velic is open
  • Grave (grv): primary articulation at oral extremity (lips or velum) ['non-coronal' for consonants, 'back' for vowels]
  • Diffuse (dif): primary articulation is relatively front ['anterior']
ʔ h a o e m n p k t b s š x
oral − (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) (+) + + + (+) (+) (+) (+)
voc (−) + (+) (+) (+) (−) (−) (−) (−) (−) − − − −
syl (−) − + + + (−) (−) (−) (−) (−) (−) (−) (−) (−)
clos (+) (−) (−) (−) (−) (+) (+) + + + − − − −
nas 0 (−) (−) (−) (−) + + − (−) − (−) (−) (−) (−)
grv 0 − + (−) + − + + − + − − +
dif 0 − − + + (+) + − (+) + + − −

0 indicates the value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because the post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). Parentheses enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules.Шаблон:Sfn

Voicing

Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. Шаблон:IPA is written as Шаблон:Grapheme orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with a dot over vowels. Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is also usually devoiced preceding h followed by a stop. Phonemic Шаблон:IPA is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below.

Penultimate devoicing

Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede the consonants Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA followed by an Шаблон:IPA. The rule is linked to the rule of e-epenthesis, which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary.Шаблон:Sfn

Prepenultimate devoicing

A vowel that does not have a high pitch is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn

Special Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA devoicing

Non-high Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by a voiced vowel and followed by an Шаблон:IPA, a consonant, and two or more syllables.Шаблон:Sfn

Consonant devoicing

Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'He is drinking.'

Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced.Шаблон:Sfn

h-absorption

The Шаблон:IPA is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels.Шаблон:Sfn

Pitch and tone

There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne. Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have a stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch.Шаблон:Sfn

High-raising

A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not preceded by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high.Шаблон:Sfn

Low-to-high raising

A low vowel is raised to the high position when it follows a high and is followed by a word final high.Шаблон:Sfn

Low-to-mid raising

A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel.Шаблон:Sfn

High pushover

A high vowel becomes low if it comes after a high and followed by a phonetic low.Шаблон:Sfn

Word-medial high raising

According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes a phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs. (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)"Шаблон:Sfn

Tone

Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, Шаблон:Grapheme, Шаблон:Grapheme, and Шаблон:Grapheme. The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in the Cheyenne language:

As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare Шаблон:Lang 'raccoon' and Шаблон:Lang 'raccoons'). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for 'badger' has a permanent accent position: Шаблон:Lang (sg.), Шаблон:Lang (pl.)Шаблон:Sfn

Nonnasal reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *k

The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, *n and *h drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before *k. *k then drops except in element-final position. Next, there is an increment before any remaining *k not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary h (replaced by š after e) ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the *k gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio k clusters are all reduced to glottal catch."Шаблон:Sfn

Grammar

Cheyenne is a morphologically polysynthetic language with a sophisticated, agglutinating verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure.Шаблон:Sfn Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences. Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate noun classification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of clusivity in the first person plural pronoun.Шаблон:Sfn

Order and mode

Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm.Шаблон:Sfn Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011)Шаблон:Sfn and Mithun (1999).Шаблон:Sfn

Independent order

This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of evidentiality.Шаблон:Sfn

Mode Example Translation
Indicative Шаблон:Lang 'he is good'
Interrogative Шаблон:Lang 'is he good?'
Inferential Шаблон:Lang 'he must be good'
Attributive Шаблон:Lang 'he is said to be good'
Mediate Шаблон:Lang 'long ago he was good'

Conjunct order

This order governs a variety of dependent clause types.Шаблон:Sfn Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning.Шаблон:Sfn Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy.Шаблон:Sfn

Mode Example Translation
Indicative Шаблон:Lang 'when he was good'
Subjunctive Шаблон:Lang 'when he is good' (unrealized)
Iterative Шаблон:Lang 'whenever he is good'
Subjunctive Iterative Шаблон:Lang 'when he is generally good'
Participle Шаблон:Lang 'the one who is good'
Interrogative Шаблон:Lang 'whether he is good'
Obligative Шаблон:Lang 'he ought to be good'
Optative Шаблон:Lang 'I wish he would be good'
Negative inferential Шаблон:Lang 'he must not be good'

Imperative order

The third order governs commands. Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages,Шаблон:Sfn distinguishes two types of imperative mood, one indicating immediate action, and the other indicating delayed action.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Mode Example Translation
Immediate Шаблон:Lang 'eat!'
Delayed Шаблон:Lang 'eat later!'
Hortative Шаблон:Lang 'let him eat!'

Verb morphology

The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn to the point that even adjectivesШаблон:Sfn and even some nounsШаблон:Sfn are largely substantiveШаблон:Clarify in nature. Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as modality, person and transitivity, as well as the animacy of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by the addition of an affix to the basic verb stem.Шаблон:Sfn There are also several instrumental, locative and adverbial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction. This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right. All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure.Шаблон:Sfn The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm:

person – (tense) – (directional) – (preverb) – ROOT – (medial) – finalШаблон:Sfn

Pronominal affixes

Cheyenne represents the participants of an expression not as separate pronoun words but as affixes on the verb. There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne:Шаблон:Sfn

These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix Шаблон:Lang can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive.

Tense

Tense in Cheyenne is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem. Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation. Thus, Шаблон:Lang could mean both 'I see him' and 'I saw him' depending on the context.Шаблон:Sfn

Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme Шаблон:IPA, which changes to Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA before the -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively. Thus:

Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme Шаблон:IPA, which changes to Шаблон:Lang after the Шаблон:Lang pronominal, Шаблон:Lang after Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether.Шаблон:Sfn

Directional affixes

These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker.Шаблон:Sfn

Preverbs

Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to the verb stem. Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample.Шаблон:Sfn

Medial affixes

This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part.Шаблон:Sfn Thus: Шаблон:Lang ('he-wash-mouth') = 'he gargled'.Шаблон:Sfn Following is a sample of medial suffixes:Шаблон:Sfn

Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in:

Шаблон:Lang [short-face-dog] = 'bulldog'Шаблон:Sfn

Final affixes

Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon the animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself. Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object. All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI).Шаблон:Sfn Following are the most common object agreement markers for each verb class.Шаблон:Sfn

Negation

Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix Шаблон:Lang immediately after the pronominal affix. This morpheme changes to Шаблон:Lang in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions.Шаблон:Sfn

Nouns

Nouns are classified according to animacy.Шаблон:Sfn They change according to grammatical number (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to genderШаблон:Sfn or definiteness.Шаблон:Sfn

Obviation

When two third persons are referred to by the same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person."Шаблон:Sfn It is essentially an "out of focus" third person.Шаблон:Sfn As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun. If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. For example:

Verbs register the presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns. These forms could be likened to a kind of passive voice, although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed.Шаблон:Sfn This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms.Шаблон:Sfn

Number

Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by the addition of suffixes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These suffixes are irregular and can change slightly according to a complex system of phonological rules.Шаблон:Sfn

Possession

Possession is denoted by a special set of pronominal suffixes. Following is a list of the most common possession prefixes, although rarely some words take different prefixes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Generally, possessive prefixes take a low pitch on the following vowel.Шаблон:Sfn

When a third person animate noun is possessed by another third person, the noun becomes obviated and takes a different form. Much of the time, this obviated form is identical to the noun's regular plural form,Шаблон:Sfn with only a few exceptions.Шаблон:Sfn This introduces ambiguity in that it is not always possible to tell whether an obviated noun is singular or plural.Шаблон:Sfn

Historical development

Файл:Cheyennecatechism page 9.jpg
Cheyenne catechism page 9

Like all the Algonquian languages, Cheyenne developed from a reconstructed ancestor referred to as Proto-Algonquian (often abbreviated "PA"). The sound changes on the road from PA to modern Cheyenne are complex, as exhibited by the development of the PA word Шаблон:Lang 'man' into Cheyenne Шаблон:Lang:

PA *θk has the Sutaio reflex ' in Шаблон:Lang 'she tells lies', but the Cheyenne-Proper reflex 'k in Шаблон:Lang 'tree-bark'. According to linguist Paul Proulx, this gave off the appearance that "speakers of both Cheyenne dialects—perhaps mixed bands—were involved in the Arapaho contact that led to this unusual reflex of PA *k.".Шаблон:Sfn

Lexicon

Some Cheyenne words (with the Proto-Algonquian reconstructions where known):

Translation history

Early work was done on the Cheyenne language by Rodolphe Charles Petter, a Mennonite missionary based in Lame Deer, Montana, from 1916.[9] Petter published a mammoth dictionary of Cheyenne in 1915.[10]

Current translations

Currently there are many online resources that allow for the instant translation from any language to the Cheyenne language. There are online vocabulary lists,[11] pronunciation guides,[12] dictionaries,[13] etc. Along with these resources, there are numbers of published books regarding the history of the language as well as explain its grammarШаблон:Sfn These resources can be found online or in libraries that carry these published books.

The latest edition of an online Cheyenne dictionary is accessible from cheyennelanguage.org.[14]


Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

External links

Шаблон:Sister project links

Шаблон:Algonquian languages Шаблон:Languages of Oklahoma Шаблон:Languages of Montana Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Linguist Wayne Leman included one more variant in his 1981 article on Cheyenne pitch rules, a lowered-high pitch (e.g. à), but has since recognized that this posited pitch is the same as a low tone.
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ "Petter, Rodolphe Charles (1865-1947)" Шаблон:Webarchive Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online, accessed September 20, 2009
  10. ↑ "Petter, 1915, English-Cheyenne Dictionary.
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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