Английская Википедия:Chi (mythology)

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Italic title

Файл:太和殿基台的螭首.JPG
Head of chi ("hornless dragon"). Forbidden City, Hall of Supreme Harmony. Santai County marble. Showing use as an architectural element.

Chi (Шаблон:Zh) means either "a hornless dragon" or "a mountain demon" (namely, Шаблон:Zh Шаблон:Zh) in Chinese mythology. Hornless dragons were a common motif in ancient Chinese art, and the chiwen Шаблон:Zh (lit. "hornless-dragon mouth") was an imperial roof decoration in traditional Chinese architecture.

Word

In Modern Standard Chinese usage, Шаблон:Zh Шаблон:Zh "hornless dragon" occurs in words such as:

Characters

Файл:螭-seal.svg
Ancient seal script for Шаблон:Zh Шаблон:Zh "a dragon; a demon"

The Chinese character for Шаблон:Zh, Шаблон:Zh, combines the "bug radical" Шаблон:Zh(Kangxi radical #142)—typically used in words for insects, reptiles, and dragonsШаблон:Efn—with a phonetic symbol, (Шаблон:Zh). This phonetic element Шаблон:Zh is pronounced either Шаблон:Zh when used for Шаблон:Zh "demon; dragon" or Шаблон:Zh when used for Шаблон:Zh.Шаблон:Efn The c. 3rd century BCE seal script character for Шаблон:Zh, which is the earliest known writing, has the same radical-phonetic combination.

This Шаблон:Zh Шаблон:Zh "hornless dragon" is also a variant Chinese character for chi Шаблон:Zh (differentiated with the "ghost radical" Шаблон:Zh) "mountain demon", which only occurs in the compound chimei Шаблон:Zh "mountain and forest demons; evil spirits; goblins". Chimei Шаблон:Zh is sometimes written Шаблон:Zh or Шаблон:Zh with chi Шаблон:Zh. Note the "ghost radical" in the mei characters Шаблон:Zh (with a phonetic of wei Шаблон:Zh) and Шаблон:Zh (with the "hair radical" Шаблон:Zh representing the demon's hair, cf. chi Шаблон:Zh's variant Шаблон:Zh).

The Shuowen Jiezi (121 CE), which was the first Chinese dictionary of characters, gives Шаблон:Zh Шаблон:Zh, Шаблон:Zh, and Шаблон:Zh definitions.[1]

This "earth cricket" (Шаблон:Zh) compares with tulou Шаблон:Zh "earth cricket," which the Classic of Mountains and Seas mentions in Шаблон:Zh ("Kunlun Mound"), "There is an animal here [at the Mound of Offspringline] which looks like a ram, but has four horns. Its name is the earth-cricket. It devours humans."Шаблон:R

Etymologies

The etymology of chi "dragon; demon" is obscure. Carr reviews three proposals by Peter A. Boodberg, Paul K. Benedict, and James Matisoff.Шаблон:Sfn

BoodbergШаблон:R proposed that chi Шаблон:Zh or Шаблон:Zh etymologically descends from a Sino-Tibetan root *brong-bri "wild oxen", from *brong "wild bull" and *bri or *brien "wild cow". He described this root as a "semantic atom, a referential complex with the meaning of 'wild' → 'wild animal' → 'couple'", and applied this etymon to many male and female animal couples, including *lywung < *blwong Шаблон:Zh "male dragon" and *t'ia Шаблон:Zh "female dragon". Compare how Yin and Yang cosmology dichotomized rainbow-dragons between Yang/male hong Шаблон:Zh "primary rainbow" and Yin/female ni Шаблон:Zh "secondary rainbow". BenedictШаблон:R noted how KarlgrenШаблон:R inconsistently reconstructed Old Chinese *t'lia for chi Шаблон:Zh "a mountain demon", Шаблон:Zh "a kind of demon", and Шаблон:Zh "a kind of dragon; a demon"; but *lia for all the other words in this phonetic series (e.g., li Шаблон:Zh "drip", li Шаблон:Zh "ornamental scarf"). Benedict reconstructed Old Chinese *xlia Шаблон:Zh "a mountain demon", deriving from a Proto-Tibeto-Burman *sri(-n) "demon" root, also evident in Tibetan sri "a species of devil or demon; a vampire", srin-po "demons", and Lushai hri < *sri "the spirit believed to cause sickness". He additionally hypothesized the *xlia Шаблон:Zh phonetic was cognate with shen < *[ly]yěn Шаблон:Zh "spirit; god" from Proto-Tibeto-Burman *[s-l]-rin < *[s-]rin.

Matisoff analyzes Benedict's *sri(-n) "demon" root as *s-r-i-n, and links Chinese *xlia Шаблон:Zh with another Tibetan cognate hdre-srin "goblins and demons" (from hdre "goblin; demon; evil spirit").Шаблон:R

SchuesslerШаблон:R reconstructed Old Chinese *rhai for chi Шаблон:Zh, Шаблон:Zh, and Шаблон:Zh "mountain demon", and proposed a Sino-Tibetan etymology comparable with Tibetan ’dre < ɴdre "goblin; demon, evil spirit" and gre-bo "species of demon", Tangkhul rai "unclean spirit", Bodo ráj "devil", and possibly Proto-Kam–Sui la:l "devil; ghost" borrowed from Chinese.

Meanings

Chinese classic texts use chi Шаблон:Zh to mean both "a hornless dragon" and "a mountain demon". The following discussion focuses upon earliest recorded usages in pre-Han texts, some of which have uncertain dates of compilation.

Hornless dragon

The Lüshi Chunqiu (c. 239 BCE) quotes Confucius comparing long Шаблон:Zh "dragons", chi Шаблон:Zh "hornless dragons", and yu 魚 "fish".

The dragon eats and swims in clear water; the one-footed dragon eats in clean water but swims in muddy water; fish eat and swim in muddy water. Now, I have not ascended to the level of a dragon but I have not descended to that of fish. I am perhaps a one-footed dragon!Шаблон:R

The reason for translating "one-footed dragon" is unclear. Compare the legendary Kui Шаблон:Zh "a one-footed dragon".

The Chuci (c. 2nd century CE) uses chi Шаблон:Zh five times, which is more than any other Chinese classic. Two contexts mention xuanchi Шаблон:Zh "dark/black hornless-dragon";Шаблон:Sfn "They lined water monsters up to join them in the dance";Шаблон:Sfn and "Driving black dragons, I travel northwards." Another mentions qingqiu Шаблон:Zh "green horned-dragons" and Шаблон:Zh "white hornless-dragons"; "With a team of azure dragons, white serpents in the traces."Шаблон:Sfn Two final contexts mention chi Шаблон:Zh with long Шаблон:Zh "dragons"; one describes a team of four dragons: "I ride a water chariot with a canopy of lotus; Two dragons draw it, between two water-serpents";Шаблон:Sfn the other uses the compound chilong Шаблон:Zh "hornless dragon": "And water dragons swim side by side, swiftly darting above and below."Шаблон:Sfn

The Huainanzi (c. 139 BCE) "Peering into the Obscure" chapter (Шаблон:Zh) mentions chichi Шаблон:Zh "red hornless-dragon" and baichi Шаблон:Zh "white hornless-dragon". The former occurs with qingqiu Шаблон:Zh "green horned-dragon": "When the red hornless dragon and the green horned dragon roamed the land of Chi Шаблон:Zh, the sky was limpid and the earth undisturbed."Шаблон:Sfn The latter occurs with benshe Шаблон:Zh "fast snake": the chariot of Fu Xi and Nüwa was "preceded by white serpents and followed by speeding snakes."Шаблон:Sfn

The "Records of the Grand Historian" (c. 100 BCE) biography of Sima Xiangru includes two of his fu Шаблон:Zh poems that mention chichi Шаблон:Zh "red hornless dragons."Шаблон:R "The Shanglin Park" Шаблон:Zh mentions them with jiaolong Шаблон:Zh, "Here horned dragons and red hornless dragons"; "Sir Fantasy" Шаблон:Zh mentions them with qingqiu Шаблон:Zh, "red hornless dragons and green horned dragons."

Theses texts describe black, white, and red chi Шаблон:Zh "hornless dragons", which contradicts the Shuowen Jiezi "like a dragon and yellow" definition. However, a possible explanation might be found in the Hanshu (Шаблон:Zh) commentary of Wei Zhao, which describes the chi Шаблон:Zh demon as "resembling a tiger with scales".

Many later dictionaries—for instance, the Guangya (c. 230 CE), Longkan Shoujian (997 CE), and Piya (c. 1080 CE)—define a contrast between qiu Шаблон:Zh "horned dragon" and chi Шаблон:Zh "hornless dragon". De Groot provides a picture of a sepulchral stone tablet decorated with a chi and the Gujin Tushu Jicheng illustration of this hornless dragon.Шаблон:Sfn

Mountain demon

Файл:Jisuke Chimi-Moryo.jpg
Chimi-mōryō Шаблон:Lang illustration from the 1802 CE Japanese Hyakkiyako-Bakemonogatari Шаблон:Lang

The chī variant Шаблон:Zh used in chīmèi (Шаблон:Zh; "demon; evil spirit") only occurs as a bound morpheme in chimèi, but mèi (Шаблон:Zh) occurs in other expressions such as mèilì (Шаблон:Zh; "enchantment; fascination; charm"). Both modern Chinese and Japanese normally use "ghost radical" Шаблон:Zh characters to write chīmèi Шаблон:Zh and wangliang or mōryō Шаблон:Zh, but these were not regularly used in classical texts. The Hanshu (111 CE) first wrote chimei as Шаблон:Zh, but earlier texts like Zuozhuan and Shiji wrote it as Шаблон:Zh, with the "hornless dragon" variant. The Guoyu (c. 4th century BCE) first wrote wangliang as Шаблон:Zh, but more classics like the Shuoyuan, Zhuangzi, Huainanzi, and Chuci) phonetically wrote it as Шаблон:Zh, without the ghost radical.

Chimei Шаблон:Zh is joined with wangliang in the expression chimei-wangliang Шаблон:Zh "demons and monsters; evil spirits". Since some commentators differentiate between chimei "demons of the mountains and forests" and wangliang "demons of the rivers and marshes", chimei-wangliang can mean either "'demons, monsters' generally or 'mountain and water demons' separately".Шаблон:Sfn De Groot describes chimei as "another demon-tribe" because the "Chinese place in their great class of hill-spirits certain quadrumana, besides actual human beings, mountaineers alien to Chinese culture, perhaps a dying race of aborigines."Шаблон:Sfn

The Zuozhuan (c. 389 BCE) commentary to the Chunqiu has the earliest textual usages of both chimei Шаблон:Zh and chimei-wangliang Шаблон:Zh.

Both the chimei contexts concern banishing evildoers into dangerous wilderness regions. The former (Шаблон:Zh18;[2]) refers to the Sixiong Шаблон:Zh "Four Fiends" (Hundun Шаблон:Zh, Qiongqi Шаблон:Zh, Taowu Шаблон:Zh, and Taotie Шаблон:Zh); the legendary ruler Shun, "banished these four wicked ones, Chaos, Monster, Block, and Glutton, casting them out into the four distant regions, to meet the spite of the sprites and evil things". Du Yu's commentary glosses chimei as "born in the strange qi of mountains and forests, harmful to humans". The latter context only mentions the villainous Taowu: "The ancient kings located T'aou-wuh in [one of] the four distant regions, to encounter the sprites and other evil things."Шаблон:Sfn

The chimei-wangliang Шаблон:Zh context records how Yu the Great, legendary founder of the Xia Dynasty, cast nine instructional bronze ding "tripod cauldrons" to acquaint people with all the dangerous creatures in China's Nine Provinces.Шаблон:Sfn

Anciently, when Hea was distinguished for its virtue, the distant regions sent pictures of the [remarkable] objects in them. The nine pastors sent in the metal of their provinces, and the tripods were cast, with representations on them of those objects. All the objects were represented, and [instructions were given] of the preparations to be made in reference to them, so that the people might know the sprites and evil things. Thus the people, when they went among the rivers, marshes, hills, and forests, did not meet with the injurious things, and the hill-sprites, monstrous things, and water-sprites, did not meet with them [to do them injury].

Note how Legge translates each chimei-wangliang syllable individually: chimei "injurious things, and the hill-sprites" and wangliang "monstrous things, and water-sprites".Шаблон:Sfn

Wang Chong's Lunheng Шаблон:Zh (late 1st century CE) considers the chimei as a dragon hybrid, "Those who give their opinion on the ch'i, state that they are dragon-like beings; therefore, as the word mei is copulated to (the name of) a dragon, the mei must be a congener of this animal."Шаблон:Sfn

Mythic parallels

Файл:Wall roof modelled as a dragon (Yu Yuan Gardens, Shanghai, China).jpg
Horned dragon roof decoration in Yuyuan Garden, Shanghai

In Chinese folklore and art, most dragons, including the long Шаблон:Zh, are represented with two horns. Besides the chi Шаблон:Zh, only a few dragons supposedly lacked horns, for instance, jiaolong Шаблон:Zh "aquatic dragon; hornless dragon; crocodile" or qiulong Шаблон:Zh "horned dragon; hornless dragon".

In comparative mythology as well, horned dragons are generally more common than hornless ones. Based upon the chishou Шаблон:Zh "hornless-dragon head" roof adornment, Kroll translates chi as wyvern, "a footed winged dragon with a serpent's tail, becoming in medieval times an oft-pictured heraldic beast."Шаблон:R

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Footnotes Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb, citing Шаблон:Harvnb
  2. ↑ Tr. Шаблон:Harvnb.
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