Английская Википедия : Chichewa tones

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang 'die'

A few verbal roots, however, have a lexical tone, which is heard on the final vowel Шаблон:Lang of the verb:

Шаблон:Lang 'run'

Шаблон:Lang 'thank'

The tones are not inherited from proto-Bantu, and do not correspond to the high-low distinction of verbal roots in other Bantu languages, but appear to be an independent development in Chichewa.^[11]

Often a verb has a tone not because the root itself has one but because a stative or intensive extension is added to it:

Шаблон:Lang 'know'

Шаблон:Lang 'be known'

Шаблон:Lang 'want'

Шаблон:Lang 'want very much'

When an extension, whether a high-toned or low-toned, is added to a high-toned verb, only one tone is heard, on the final:

Шаблон:Lang 'find'

Шаблон:Lang 'catch someone in the act'

Шаблон:Lang 'run after'

Grammatical tones

Tonal patterns of tenses

In addition to the lexical tones described above, Chichewa verbs also have grammatical tones. Each tense conforms to a particular tonal melody, which is the same for every verb in that tense (with adjustments made depending on the length of verb). For example, the following tenses have a high tone immediately after the tense-marker:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I was helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I helped (just now)'

The following have two separate tones, one on the tense-marker and one on the penultimate syllable:

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should be helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'if ever I help'

The following tenses are toneless:

Шаблон:Lang 'I have helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'I can help'

Шаблон:Lang 'if I help'

and so on. There are at least eight different tonal patterns in affirmative verbs, in addition to further patterns used in negative tenses and in relative clause verbs.^[12]

Adding an object-marker

The tonal pattern frequently changes again when other morphemes such as aspect-markers or an object-marker are added to the verb. For example:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am helping him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I never help him'

In other tenses, however, notably those with penultimate tone, the object-marker loses its tone and the tense pattern remains unchanged:

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I don't help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't help him'

Negative tense patterns

Negative verbs usually have different tonal patterns from the same tense when positive, and sometimes there are two different negative patterns, according to the meaning, for example:

Шаблон:Lang 'I don't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I haven't helped yet'

Dependent clause patterns

In several tenses the tonal pattern changes when the verb is used in a relative, temporal, or conditional clause. Sometimes a change in tonal pattern alone is sufficient to show that a verb is being used in this way. The principal change is that a tone is added on the first syllable of the verb, and there is often one on the penultimate as well:

Шаблон:Lang 'the year has ended'

Шаблон:Lang 'the year which has ended (i.e. last year)'

Шаблон:Lang 'he is in Lilongwe'

Шаблон:Lang 'when he is/was in Lilongwe'

Шаблон:Lang 'I would have helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'if I had helped'

Lexical tone combined with tonal pattern

When the verb-root itself has a high tone, this tone can be heard on the final syllable in addition to the tonal pattern:

Шаблон:Lang 'I would have helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'I would have run' (lexical tone can be heard)

However, if the tonal pattern of the tense places a tone on the penultimate or final syllable, the lexical tone is neutralised and cannot be heard.

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't run' (lexical tone deleted)

Шаблон:Lang 'I should help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should run'

If a tonal pattern places a tone on the antepenultimate syllable of a high-toned verb, the two tones join into a plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am running'

Шаблон:Lang 'I have found him'

Intonational tones

Lexical and grammatical tones are not the only tones heard in a Chichewa sentence, but there are intonational tones as well. One common tone is a boundary tone rising from low to high which is heard whenever there is a pause in the sentence, for example after a topic or subordinate clause.

Tones are also added to questions. For example, the toneless word Шаблон:Lang 'where?' becomes Шаблон:Lang in the following question:

Шаблон:Lang 'where is your home?'

Further details of intonational tones are given below.

Number of tones

Two pitch levels, high and low, conventionally written H and L, are usually considered to be sufficient to describe the tones of Chichewa.^[13] In Chichewa itself the high tone is called Шаблон:Lang ('tone of raising'), and the low tone Шаблон:Lang ('tone of lowering').^[14] Some authors^[15] add a mid-height tone but most do not, but consider a mid-height tone to be merely an allophone of nearby high tones.

From a theoretical point of view, however, it has been argued that Chichewa tones are best thought of not in terms of H and L, but in terms of H and Ø, that is to say, high-toned vs toneless syllables.^[1] The reason is that H tones are much more dynamic than L tones and play a large role in tonal phenomena, whereas L-toned syllables are relatively inert.^[16]

Tones are not marked in the standard orthography used in Chichewa books and newspapers, but linguists usually indicate a high tone by writing it with an acute accent, as in the first syllable of Шаблон:Lang. The low tones are generally left unmarked.

Works describing Chichewa tones

The earliest work to mark the tones of Chichewa words was the Afro-American scholar Mark Hanna Watkins' A Grammar of Chichewa (1937). This was a pioneering work, since not only was it the first work on Chichewa to include tones, but it was also the first grammar of any African language to be written by an American.^[17] The informant used by Watkins was the young Kamuzu Banda, who in 1966 was to become the first President of the Republic of Malawi.

Another grammar including Chichewa tones was a handbook written for Peace Corps Volunteers, Stevick et al., Chinyanja Basic Course (1965), which gives very detailed information on the tones of sentences, and also indicates intonations.^[18] Its successor, Scotton and Orr (1980) Learning Chichewa,^[19] is much less detailed. All three of these works are available on the Internet. J.K. Louw's Chichewa: A Practical Course (1987) [1980], which contained tone markings, is currently out of print.

From 1976 onwards a number of academic articles by Malawian and Western scholars have been published on different aspects of Chichewa tones. The most recent work discussing the tones of Chichewa is The Phonology of Chichewa (2017) by Laura Downing and Al Mtenje.

Four dictionaries also mark the tones on Chichewa words. The earliest of these was volume 3 of J.K. Louw's Chichewa: A Practical Course (1987) [1980]; A Learner's Chichewa-English, English-Chichewa Dictionary by Botne and Kulemeka (1991), the monolingual Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja/Chichewa (c.2000) produced by the Centre for Language Studies of the University of Malawi (available online),^[20] and the Common Bantu On-Line Chichewa Dictionary (2001) formerly published online by the University of California in Berkeley.^[21]

So far all the studies which have been published on Chichewa tones have dealt with the Malawian variety of the language. There is no published information available on the tones of Chinyanja spoken in Zambia and Mozambique.

Some tonal phenomena

In order to understand Chichewa tones, it is necessary first to understand various tonal phenomena that can occur, which are briefly outlined below.

Downdrift

Normally in a Chichewa sentence, whenever two high tones are separated by one or more toneless syllables (i.e. when the tones come in the sequence HLH or HLLH or HLLLH), it is usual for the second high tone to be a little lower than the first one. So for example in the word Шаблон:Lang 'he usually rules' in the example illustrated above, the tone of the first syllable Шаблон:Lang is pronounced a little higher than the tone of the second tone Шаблон:Lang. Thus generally speaking the highest tone in a sentence is the first one. This phenomenon, which is common in many Bantu languages, is known as 'downdrift'^[22] or 'catathesis'^[23] or 'automatic downstep'.^[24]

However, there are several exceptions to this rule. Downdrift does not occur, for example, when a speaker is asking a question,^[25] or reciting a list of items with a pause after each one, or sometimes if a word is pronounced on a high pitch for emphasis. There is also no downdrift in words like Шаблон:Lang 'policeman' (derived from Шаблон:Lang 'a person of' + Шаблон:Lang 'the police'), where two high tones in the sequence HLH are bridged to make a plateau HHH (see below).

High tone spreading (HTS)

In some dialects a high tone may sometimes spread to the following syllable; this is known as 'High Tone Spreading' or 'Tone Doubling'.^[26] So where some speakers say Шаблон:Lang 'I helped', others will say Шаблон:Lang.^[27] Some phoneticians argue that what happens here, in some cases at least, is that the highest part or 'peak' of the tone moves forward, giving the impression that the tone covers two syllables, a process called 'peak delay'.^[28] An illustration of peak delay can be seen clearly in the pitch-track of the word Шаблон:Lang 'they fed' reproduced above, here pronounced Шаблон:Lang, in Downing et al. (2004).

There are some verb forms where tone-doubling does not occur, for example, in the Present habitual tense, where there is always a low tone on the second syllable:^[29]

Шаблон:Lang 'they usually rule'

In order for HTS to occur, there must be at least 3 syllables following the tone, although not necessarily in the same word. Thus the first tone may spread in the second of each pair below, but not in the first:^[30]

Шаблон:Lang 'thank you'

Шаблон:Lang 'thank you very much'

Шаблон:Lang 'cock, rooster'

Шаблон:Lang 'the price of a rooster'

One frequent use of tone doubling is to link together two words into a single phrase. This most commonly occurs from the penultimate syllable, but in some dialects also from the antepenultimate. So, for example, when a verb is followed by an object:

Шаблон:Lang 'they are hunting'

Шаблон:Lang 'they are hunting a lion'^[31]

Шаблон:Lang 'to cook'

Шаблон:Lang 'to cook meat'^[32]

Шаблон:Lang 'to care for'

Шаблон:Lang 'to care for a wife'^[33]

This phenomenon can be seen in the pitch track of the sentence Шаблон:Lang illustrated at the beginning of this article, in which the tone of Шаблон:Lang is extended to make Шаблон:Lang.

Tone doubling is also found when a noun is followed by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun:

Шаблон:Lang 'lions'

Шаблон:Lang 'those lions'^[34]

Шаблон:Lang 'maize'

Шаблон:Lang 'my maize'^[35]

Tonal plateau

It sometimes happens that the sequence HLH in Chichewa becomes HHH, making a tonal 'plateau'. A tonal plateau is common after the proclitic words Шаблон:Lang 'of' and Шаблон:Lang 'and', 'with':^[36]

Шаблон:Lang 'policeman' (from Шаблон:Lang '(a person) of' and Шаблон:Lang 'police')

Шаблон:Lang 'food' (from Шаблон:Lang '(a thing) of' and Шаблон:Lang 'to eat')

Шаблон:Lang 'and Malawi'

Before a pause the final tone may drop but the tone of the middle syllable remains high: Шаблон:Lang. Sometimes a succession of tones is bridged in this way, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'masked dancer', with one long continuous high tone from Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang.^[37]

Another place where a plateau is commonly found is after the initial high tone of dependent clause verbs such as the following:

Шаблон:Lang 'when he is helping'; 'who is helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'after I helped'

At the end of words, if the tones are HLH, a plateau is common:

Шаблон:Lang 'son-in-law'

Шаблон:Lang 'colonialists' (lit. 'owners of farmland')

Шаблон:Lang 'difference'

Шаблон:Lang 'weight, being heavy'

However, there are exceptions; for example, in the word Шаблон:Lang 'star' the two tones are kept separate, so that the word is pronounced Шаблон:Lang (where ī represents a slightly lower tone than í).^[38]

There are also certain tonal tense patterns (such as affirmative patterns 5 and 6 described below) where the two tones are kept separate even when the sequence is HLH:

Шаблон:Lang 'I was helping' (tone pattern 5)

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually eat' (tone pattern 6)

No tonal plateau is possible when the underlying sequence of tones is HLLH, even when by spreading this becomes HHLH:

Шаблон:Lang 'habit'

Tone-shifting ('bumping')

When a word or closely connected phrase ends in HHL or HLHL, there is a tendency in Chichewa for the second H to move to the final syllable of the word. This process is known as 'tone shifting'^[39] or 'bumping'.^[40] There are two types in which the second tone moves forward, local and non-local bumping. There is also reverse bumping, where the first tone moves backwards.

Local bumping

In 'local bumping' or 'local tone shift', LHHL at the end of a word or phrase becomes LHHH, where the two tones are joined into a plateau. This can happen when a final-tone word is followed by a possessive adjective, and also with the words Шаблон:Lang 'other' and Шаблон:Lang 'all':^[41]

Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'my house'

Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'another house'

Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'all the houses'

In three-syllable words where HHL is due to the addition of an enclitic suffix such as Шаблон:Lang 'also, again', Шаблон:Lang 'indeed' or Шаблон:Lang 'still', the tones similarly change to HHH:^[42]

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'fish also'

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'he is indeed going'

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'he is still going'

Tone shift also happens in verbs when the verb would otherwise end with LHHL:^[43]

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'they killed him'

At the end of a sentence the final high tone may drop again, reverting the word to Шаблон:Lang.

In pattern 5 and negative pattern 3a verbs (see below) there is a choice between making a plateau and treating the final tone as separate:^[44]

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'I should be going'

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'I can't hit'

There is no bumping in HHL words where the first syllable is derived from Шаблон:Lang 'of':

Шаблон:Lang 'very much'

Шаблон:Lang 'worker'

Non-local bumping

In another kind of tone-shift (called 'non-local bumping'), HLHL at the end of a word or phrase changes to HLLH or, with spreading of the first high tone, HHLH:

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang) 'my goat'

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'the whole family'

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'in the same way'

But there is no bumping in tense-patterns 5 and 6 or negative pattern 3 when the tones at the end of the word are HLHL:

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually go'

Шаблон:Lang 'I can't help'

Reverse bumping

A related phenomenon, but in reverse, is found when the addition of the suffix Шаблон:Lang 'really' causes a normally word-final tone to move back one syllable, so that LHH at the end of a word becomes HLH:

Шаблон:Lang 'I should go' > Шаблон:Lang 'really I should go'

Шаблон:Lang 'because' > Шаблон:Lang 'because in fact'

Enclitic suffixes

Certain suffixes, known as enclitics, add a high tone to the last syllable of the word to which they are joined. When added to a toneless word or a word ending in LL, this high tone can easily be heard:

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'Lilongwe also':

Bumping does not occur when an enclitic is added to a word ending HLL:

Шаблон:Lang 'he is helping' > Шаблон:Lang 'he's still helping'

But when an enclitic is combined with word which ends HL, there is local bumping, and the result is a plateau of three tones:

Шаблон:Lang 'fish' > Шаблон:Lang 'the fish also'

When added to a word with final high tone, it raises the tone higher (in Central Region dialects, the rising tone on the first syllable of a word like Шаблон:Lang also disappears):^[45]

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'the house also'

Not all suffixes are tonally enclitic in this way. For example, when added to nouns or pronouns, the locative suffixes Шаблон:Lang do not add a tone:

Шаблон:Lang 'there in Lilongwe'

Шаблон:Lang 'on this spot here'

Шаблон:Lang 'inside this box'

However, when added to verbs, these same suffixes add an enclitic tone:

Шаблон:Lang 'he's not at home' (lit. 'he has gone away just now')

Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen inside it'

Proclitic prefixes

Conversely, certain prefixes place a high tone on the syllable which follows them. Prefixes of this kind are called 'proclitic'^[31] or 'post-accenting'. For example, the prefix Шаблон:Lang of the infinitive puts a tone on the syllable following:

Шаблон:Lang 'to help'

Other tenses of this type are described under affirmative tense patterns 4 and 8 below.

Object-markers such as Шаблон:Lang 'me' or Шаблон:Lang 'him/her' etc. also become proclitic when added to an imperative or subjunctive. In a four or five-syllable verb, the tone of the object-marker is heard at the beginning of the verb and may spread:^[46]

Шаблон:Lang 'please explain to me'

In a three-syllable verb, the tones make a plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'help me!'

Шаблон:Lang 'could you help me?'

In a two-syllable verb, the second tone is lost:

Шаблон:Lang 'catch him!'

But in a one-syllable verb, the first tone remains on the object-marker and the second tone is lost:

Шаблон:Lang 'let's kill him!'

Tone deletion (Meeussen's Rule)

Meeussen's Rule is a process in several Bantu languages whereby a sequence HH becomes HL. This is frequent in verbs when a penultimate tone causes the deletion of a final tone:

A tone deleted by Meeussen's Rule can be replaced by spreading. Thus although Шаблон:Lang loses its final tone, the first tone can spread in a phrase such as Шаблон:Lang 'to sleep well'.^[47]

An instance where Meeussen's Rule does not apply in Chichewa is when the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and' is added to a verb, for example: Шаблон:Lang 'he went and helped'. So far from being deleted, this tone can itself spread to the next syllable, e.g. Шаблон:Lang.^[48] The tone of an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him' in the same position, however, is deleted by Meeussen's Rule and then replaced by spreading; it does not itself spread: Шаблон:Lang 'he helped him'. In the Southern Region, the spreading does not occur, and the tones are Шаблон:Lang.

Tone of consonants

Just as in English, where in a word like zoo or wood or now the initial voiced consonant has a low pitch compared with the following vowel, the same is true of Chichewa. Thus Trithart marks the tones of initial consonants such as [m], [n], [z], and [dz] in some words as Low.^[49]

However, an initial nasal consonant is not always pronounced with a low pitch. After a high tone it can acquire a high tone itself, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'of the fisherman'^[50] The consonants n and m can also have a high tone when contracted from Шаблон:Lang 'and' or high-toned Шаблон:Lang, e.g. Шаблон:Lang (short for Шаблон:Lang) 'where do you live?'.^[51]

In some Southern African Bantu languages such as Zulu a voiced consonant at the beginning of a syllable not only has a low pitch itself, but can also lower the pitch of all or part of the following vowel. Such consonants are known as 'depressor consonants'. The question of whether Chichewa has depressor consonants was first considered by Trithart (1976) and further by Cibelli (2012). According to data collected by Cibelli, a voiced or nasalised consonant does indeed have a small effect on the tone of a following vowel, making it a semitone or more lower; so that for example the second vowel of Шаблон:Lang 'to buy' would have a slightly lower pitch than that of Шаблон:Lang 'to grow' or Шаблон:Lang 'to sit'. When the vowel is toneless, the effect is less, but it seems that there is still a slight difference. The effect of depressor consonants in Chichewa, however, is much less noticeable than in Zulu.

Lexical tones

Lexical tones are the tones of individual words. A high tone remains high, even though a word is used in different contexts.

Nouns

In the CBOLD Chichewa dictionary,^[21] about 36% of Chichewa nouns are toneless, 57% have one tone, and only 7% have more than one tone. When there is one tone, it is generally on one of the last three syllables. Nouns with a tone more than three syllables from the end are virtually all foreign borrowings, such as Шаблон:Lang 'secondary school'.

Comparison with other Bantu languages shows that for the most part the tones of nouns in Chichewa correspond to the tones of their cognates in other Bantu languages, and are therefore likely to be inherited from an earlier stage of Bantu.^[52] An exception is that nouns which at an earlier period had HH (such as Шаблон:Lang 'fish', from proto-Bantu *cómbá) have changed in Chichewa to HL by Meeussen's rule. Two-syllable nouns in Chichewa can therefore have the tones HL, LH, or LL, these three being about equally common, but (discounting the fact that LH words are usually in practice pronounced HH) there are no nouns with the underlying tones HH.^[53]

The class-prefix of nouns, such as (class 7) Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang 'love', or (class 3) m- in Шаблон:Lang 'tree', is usually toneless. However, there are some exceptions such as Шаблон:Lang 'maize', Шаблон:Lang 'liver'. The three nouns Шаблон:Lang 'eye', Шаблон:Lang 'tooth', and Шаблон:Lang 'sound or word' are irregular in that the high tone moves from the prefix to the stem in the plural, making Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang respectively.^[54]

Toneless nouns

Шаблон:Lang 'father, gentleman'

Шаблон:Lang 'Chakwera' (surname)

Шаблон:Lang 'a cold' (illness)

Шаблон:Lang 'string, rope'

Шаблон:Lang 'thing'

Шаблон:Lang '(bed)room'

Шаблон:Lang 'district'

Шаблон:Lang 'hand' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'hands')

Шаблон:Lang (no plural) 'smell'

Шаблон:Lang 'question'

Шаблон:Lang 'thought, idea'

Шаблон:Lang 'group'

Шаблон:Lang 'pair of shorts'

Шаблон:Lang 'mouth'

Шаблон:Lang 'door, doorway'

Шаблон:Lang 'law, rule'

Шаблон:Lang 'Lilongwe'

Шаблон:Lang 'behaviour'

Шаблон:Lang 'blood'

Шаблон:Lang 'electricity'

Шаблон:Lang 'funeral'

Шаблон:Lang 'graveyard'

Шаблон:Lang 'exam'

Шаблон:Lang 'plate'

Шаблон:Lang 'mouse'

Шаблон:Lang 'gun'

Шаблон:Lang 'milk'

Шаблон:Lang 'farmer'

Шаблон:Lang 'beer'

Шаблон:Lang 'life' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'lives')

Шаблон:Lang 'chair'

Шаблон:Lang 'knife'

Шаблон:Lang 'teacher'

Шаблон:Lang 'ball, football'

Шаблон:Lang 'road'

Шаблон:Lang 'market'

Шаблон:Lang 'meeting'

Шаблон:Lang 'price'

Шаблон:Lang 'leader'

Шаблон:Lang 'kind, type, colour'

Шаблон:Lang 'village'

Шаблон:Lang 'God'

Шаблон:Lang 'person' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'people')

Шаблон:Lang 'custom, tradition'

Шаблон:Lang 'good luck'

Шаблон:Lang 'leg' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'legs')

Шаблон:Lang 'city'

Шаблон:Lang 'European, white man'

Шаблон:Lang 'stick'

Шаблон:Lang 'programme, system'

Шаблон:Lang 'cow, ox'

Шаблон:Lang 'hunger'

Шаблон:Lang 'path'

Шаблон:Lang 'elephant'

Шаблон:Lang 'cruelty'

Шаблон:Lang 'animal, meat'

Шаблон:Lang 'season'

Шаблон:Lang 'ant(s)'

Шаблон:Lang 'prayer'

Шаблон:Lang 'lesson'

Шаблон:Lang 'pocket'

Шаблон:Lang 'body'

Шаблон:Lang 'leaf, page' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'vegetables')

Шаблон:Lang 'bad luck'

Шаблон:Lang 'answer'

Foreign borrowings also occasionally have this intonation:

Шаблон:Lang 'bomb' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'hospital' (from English hospital, Afrikaans Шаблон:Lang or Port. Шаблон:Lang, via Shona)

Шаблон:Lang 'dam, fishpond'

Шаблон:Lang 'form' (in school)

Шаблон:Lang 'jersey, pullover' (cf. Shona Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'Catholic' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'irrigation canal'^[55]

Шаблон:Lang 'cooking-pot'

Шаблон:Lang 'sack' (from Eng. sack, Afr. Шаблон:Lang, or Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Nouns with final tone

In isolation these words are usually pronounced Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, etc., ending with two tones of mid height. Alternatively, in some dialects, at the end of a phrase they may be pronounced Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, with a rising tone on the penultimate and a low tone on the final. When the suffix Шаблон:Lang 'that' (varying according to the noun class) is added, the tone becomes a normal penultimate tone, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'that house', Шаблон:Lang 'that garden', making the tone easy to hear.

In this article the final tone is written as a final tone, even though in practice it may be pronounced in different ways.

Шаблон:Lang 'open area, court'

Шаблон:Lang 'year' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'years')

Шаблон:Lang 'finger, toe'

Шаблон:Lang 'Chichewa'

Шаблон:Lang 'reason'

Шаблон:Lang 'cassava'

Шаблон:Lang 'Chinyanja'

Шаблон:Lang 'rudeness'

Шаблон:Lang 'termite(s)'

Шаблон:Lang 'dust'

Шаблон:Lang 'dog'

Шаблон:Lang 'hare, rabbit'

Шаблон:Lang 'expert'

Шаблон:Lang 'verandah'

Шаблон:Lang 'ear'

Шаблон:Lang 'outside'

Шаблон:Lang 'bilharzia'

Шаблон:Lang 'sound; word'

Шаблон:Lang 'skill'

Шаблон:Lang 'water'

Шаблон:Lang '(late) afternoon, evening'

Шаблон:Lang 'place'

Шаблон:Lang 'teeth'

Шаблон:Lang 'fear, anxiety'

Шаблон:Lang 'shame, embarrassment'

Шаблон:Lang 'eyes'

Шаблон:Lang 'word, voice'

Шаблон:Lang 'relative, brother'

Шаблон:Lang 'brother'

Шаблон:Lang 'court case'

Шаблон:Lang 'stranger, guest'

Шаблон:Lang 'morning'

Шаблон:Lang (also Шаблон:Lang) 'boy'

Шаблон:Lang 'cat'

Шаблон:Lang 'dictionary'

Шаблон:Lang 'groundnuts'

Шаблон:Lang 'garden (for maize or other crops)'

Шаблон:Lang 'head'

Шаблон:Lang 'hippopotamus'

Шаблон:Lang 'stone'

Шаблон:Lang 'child'

Шаблон:Lang 'moon, month'

Шаблон:Lang 'owner of' (pl. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'prison'

Шаблон:Lang 'minister (of government)'

Шаблон:Lang 'loan'

Шаблон:Lang 'bicycle'

Шаблон:Lang 'cloth'

Шаблон:Lang 'baboon'

Шаблон:Lang 'lake'

Шаблон:Lang 'house'

Шаблон:Lang (pl.) 'wisdom, intelligence'

Шаблон:Lang 'ground, floor'

Шаблон:Lang 'foot' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'feet')

Шаблон:Lang 'future, front'

Шаблон:Lang 'advantage, goodness'

Шаблон:Lang 'mosquito(es)'

Шаблон:Lang 'flour'

Шаблон:Lang 'freedom'

Шаблон:Lang 'journey'

Шаблон:Lang 'bow'

Шаблон:Lang 'Zomba'

Foreign borrowings with this intonation are uncommon:

Шаблон:Lang 'bell'

Шаблон:Lang 'donkey' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'bed' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'mango(es)' (sing. Шаблон:Lang)

Nouns with penultimate tone

Шаблон:Lang 'Banda' (personal name)^[56]

Шаблон:Lang 'wound'

Шаблон:Lang 'family'

Шаблон:Lang 'lie'

Шаблон:Lang 'government'

Шаблон:Lang 'organisation'

Шаблон:Lang 'love'

Шаблон:Lang 'example'

Шаблон:Lang 'picture'

Шаблон:Lang 'eye' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'eyes')

Шаблон:Lang 'country' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'countries')

Шаблон:Lang 'name' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'names')

Шаблон:Lang 'tooth' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'teeth')

Шаблон:Lang 'pumpkin' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'pumpkins')

Шаблон:Lang 'the sun'

Шаблон:Lang 'dance'

Шаблон:Lang 'goods, luggage'

Шаблон:Lang 'parent' (pl. Шаблон:Lang 'parents')

Шаблон:Lang 'oil'

Шаблон:Lang 'Malawi'

Шаблон:Lang 'medicine'

Шаблон:Lang 'disease'

Шаблон:Lang 'mother, woman'

Шаблон:Lang 'side'

Шаблон:Lang 'seed, crop'

Шаблон:Lang 'herdsman, church minister'

Шаблон:Lang 'goat'

Шаблон:Lang 'witch'

Шаблон:Lang 'chief'

Шаблон:Lang 'belly'

Шаблон:Lang 'lion'

Шаблон:Lang 'wife'

Шаблон:Lang 'palm-leaf mat'

Шаблон:Lang 'official'

Шаблон:Lang 'my friend, his friend'

Шаблон:Lang 'fire'

Шаблон:Lang 'church, congregation'

Шаблон:Lang (pl.) 'strength'

Шаблон:Lang 'gift'

Шаблон:Lang 'tree'

Шаблон:Lang 'heart'

Шаблон:Lang 'river'

Шаблон:Lang 'rain'

Шаблон:Lang 'man'

Шаблон:Lang (pl.) 'relish'

Шаблон:Lang 'story, news'

Шаблон:Lang 'chicken, hen'

Шаблон:Lang 'cooked maize flour'

Шаблон:Lang 'fish'

Шаблон:Lang 'work'

Шаблон:Lang 'time'

Шаблон:Lang 'song'

Шаблон:Lang 'day' (plural Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'night' (no plural)

Шаблон:Lang 'problem'

There are also many foreign borrowings with this tone, such as the following: Шаблон:Colbegin

Шаблон:Lang 'garlic' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'soldiers' (Swahili Шаблон:Lang, via Yao)

Шаблон:Lang 'bathroom'

Шаблон:Lang 'bank'

Шаблон:Lang 'bus'

Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) 'book'

Шаблон:Lang 'bread'

Шаблон:Lang 'boss' (Swahili Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'English language' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'political party' (Afrikaans Шаблон:Lang 'team of oxen', via Shona)

Шаблон:Lang 'dress'

Шаблон:Lang 'fertiliser'

Шаблон:Lang 'tobacco' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'phone'

Шаблон:Lang 'piece-work' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'hotel'

Шаблон:Lang 'spirits (drink)' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'television, cinema' (Eng. kinema)^[57]

Шаблон:Lang 'cancer'

Шаблон:Lang 'law-court'

Шаблон:Lang 'kilometre'

Шаблон:Lang 'key'

Шаблон:Lang 'English language' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'maths' (Eng. sum)

Шаблон:Lang 'flag' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'money' (Arabic Шаблон:Transl)

Шаблон:Lang 'hour' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'papaya' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'sugar'

Шаблон:Lang 'anorak' (Zulu Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'train, ship'

Шаблон:Lang 'store, shop'

Шаблон:Lang 'soap'

Шаблон:Lang 'school'

Шаблон:Lang 'tea'

Шаблон:Lang 'tomato(es)'

Шаблон:Lang 'window'

Шаблон:Lang 'window' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

The following words are pronounced with the same ending as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang (pronounced Шаблон:Lang) 'committee'

Шаблон:Lang (pronounced Шаблон:Lang) 'taxi'

Nouns with antepenultimate tone

Шаблон:Lang 'lizard'

Шаблон:Lang 'maize'

Шаблон:Lang 'liver'

Шаблон:Lang 'shrine, temple'

Шаблон:Lang 'crow'

Шаблон:Lang 'sport'

Шаблон:Lang 'bird'

Шаблон:Lang 'row, list'

Шаблон:Lang 'side, edge'

Шаблон:Lang 'mother-in-law'

Шаблон:Lang 'teenage girl'

Шаблон:Lang 'cousin'

Шаблон:Lang 'girl'

Шаблон:Lang 'initiate'

Шаблон:Lang 'house-cricket'

Шаблон:Lang 'traditional doctor'

This group is less common than the first three. Many of the words with this tone are loanwords from Portuguese or English such as: Шаблон:Colbegin

Шаблон:Lang 'apple'

Шаблон:Lang 'box; coffin'

Шаблон:Lang 'bottle'

Шаблон:Lang 'jail' (Eng. 'stocks', via Shona Шаблон:Lang)^[58]

Шаблон:Lang 'doctor' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'jacket'

Шаблон:Lang 'letter' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'candle'

Шаблон:Lang 'kitchen'

Шаблон:Lang 'condom'

Шаблон:Lang 'machine' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'spare parts'

Шаблон:Lang 'small tomatoes' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'sweet potatoes' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'potatoes' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'Mutharika' (surname, from Lomwe)

Шаблон:Lang 'shoe(s)' (Port. Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'office'

Шаблон:Lang 'paper'

Шаблон:Lang 'petrol'

Шаблон:Lang 'church'

Шаблон:Lang 'table'

Шаблон:Lang 'oven'

The antepenultimate high tone in words such as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang spreads to the following n.

Tone four syllables from the end

In foreign borrowings the tone may come four syllables from the end. In the first four words below, the vowel following the tone is an epenthetic one, added to make the word easier to pronounce.^[59] When the added vowel is u or i (as in Шаблон:Lang 'laptop' or Шаблон:Lang 'internet') it tends to be very short or barely pronounced:^[60]

Шаблон:Lang 'doctor'

Шаблон:Lang 'laptop computer'

Шаблон:Lang 'England'

Шаблон:Lang 'programme'

Шаблон:Lang 'secondary school'

Where the second vowel is i, however, the tone spreads:

Шаблон:Lang 'bra'

Шаблон:Lang 'marks'

Шаблон:Lang 'minibus'

Шаблон:Lang 'apron'

Шаблон:Lang 'primary school'

Шаблон:Lang 'transport expenses'

Шаблон:Lang 'radio'

Шаблон:Lang 'wheelbarrow'

In the following compound nouns the tone of the second element (Шаблон:Lang 'boy', Шаблон:Lang 'fire' and Шаблон:Lang 'bed') is lost:

Шаблон:Lang 'head boy'

Шаблон:Lang 'car'

Шаблон:Lang 'bedsheet'

The tone of the second element is also lost in the following word, which is derived from Шаблон:Lang 'female chief':

Шаблон:Lang 'queen'

Of similar intonation is the following, in which Шаблон:Lang is equivalent to two syllables:

Шаблон:Lang 'carpenter'

Similar are the following, which have the tone five syllables from the end:

Шаблон:Lang 'customer'

Шаблон:Lang 'internet'

Nouns with two tones

Nouns which are compounded with the associative prefix Шаблон:Lang 'of', which has a high tone, can also have two tones, one on Шаблон:Lang and the other on the noun itself:

Шаблон:Lang 'worker' (from Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'creditor'

Where the tones are separated by a single toneless syllable, the two tones form a plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'policeman' (from Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'water-seller' (from Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'thief'

Шаблон:Lang 'food'

Шаблон:Lang 'Tuesday'

When Шаблон:Lang is prefixed to the infinitive of a verb of more than one syllable, the Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang usually coalesce into the vowel Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang 'Monday' (from Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang, 'day of writing')

Шаблон:Lang 'Saturday'

Шаблон:Lang 'sick person'

Шаблон:Lang 'pupil'

Шаблон:Lang 'bedclothes'

Шаблон:Lang 'truth'

The prefix Шаблон:Lang in some words adds two high tones, one following Шаблон:Lang and one on the final. The first may spread forwards and the second backwards, but the two tones are kept separate with the second lower than the first:

Шаблон:Lang 'habit, custom'

Шаблон:Lang 'desire'

Шаблон:Lang 'riot'

Шаблон:Lang 'picture'

Шаблон:Lang 'stopper'

Шаблон:Lang 'lid'

Шаблон:Lang 'steering-wheel'

If there are only three syllables following the prefix Шаблон:Lang, the two tones link into an HHH plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'banner, sign'

Шаблон:Lang 'violence, riot'

The (L)HHH pattern is also found in a few other words (mostly compounds):

Шаблон:Lang 'difference'

Шаблон:Lang 'orange' (Portuguese Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang 'vision'

Шаблон:Lang 'son-in-law'

Шаблон:Lang 'pepper'

Шаблон:Lang 'colonialists'

Шаблон:Lang 'hailstones'

Шаблон:Lang 'supper'

Шаблон:Lang 'scorpion'

A triple tone is also found in:

Шаблон:Lang 'chameleon'

Шаблон:Lang 'butterfly, moth'

Шаблон:Lang 'drunkard'

Шаблон:Lang 'turkey' (bird)

It is also found in some borrowed words:

Шаблон:Lang 'blackboard'

Шаблон:Lang 'goalkeeper'

Шаблон:Lang 'headmaster'

Шаблон:Lang 'newspaper'

The following nouns have two separate tones and no plateau. The second tone is lower than the first:

Шаблон:Lang (also Шаблон:Lang) 'star'^[61]

Шаблон:Lang 'small bribe, tip' (lit. 'though it may be little')

Adjectives

Adjectives in Chichewa are usually formed with the word Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang etc. according to noun class) 'of', known as the 'associative prefix',^[62] which has a high tone:

Шаблон:Lang 'good'^[63]

Шаблон:Lang 'new'

When there is a sequence of HLH, the tones will bridge to make HHH:

Шаблон:Lang 'old'

The seven double-prefix adjectives (Шаблон:Lang 'male', Шаблон:Lang 'female', Шаблон:Lang 'long', Шаблон:Lang 'short', Шаблон:Lang 'fresh', Шаблон:Lang 'big', Шаблон:Lang 'small' all have penultimate tone.^[62] The first three syllables in these adjectives are bridged into a plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'a tall man'

Шаблон:Lang 'a big house'

Шаблон:Lang 'female child'

Шаблон:Lang 'male child'

Combined with an infinitive, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang usually merge (except usually in monosyllabic verbs) into a high-toned Шаблон:Lang:^[64]

Шаблон:Lang 'bad'

Шаблон:Lang 'mad'

Шаблон:Lang 'sick'^[65]

Шаблон:Lang 'thieving; thief'

Some speakers make a slight dip between the two tones:

Шаблон:Lang 'expensive'^[66]

Combined with a negative infinitive, the adjective has a tone on the penultimate. The tones do not bridge into a plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'disobedient'

Possessive adjectives are also made with Шаблон:Lang. As explained in the section on bumping, their tone may change when they follow a noun ending in HL, LH or HH. The concords shown below are for noun classes 1 and 2:

Шаблон:Lang 'my'

Шаблон:Lang 'your'

Шаблон:Lang 'his, her, its (also 'their' of non-personal possessors)

Шаблон:Lang 'our'

Шаблон:Lang 'your' (of you plural, or polite)

Шаблон:Lang 'their' (or 'his, her' in polite speech)

The adjective Шаблон:Lang 'another, a certain' has similar tones to Шаблон:Lang 'my':

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'another, a certain'

The adjective Шаблон:Lang 'ordinary', however, is not made with Шаблон:Lang and has a low tone on both syllables. The first syllable Шаблон:Lang in this word does not change with the class of noun:

Шаблон:Lang 'an ordinary person'

Шаблон:Lang 'ordinary people'

Pronominal adjectives

The following three adjectives have their own concords and are not formed using Шаблон:Lang. Here they are shown with the concords of classes 1 and 2:

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'all of'

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'himself'

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'only'

As with possessives, the high tone of these may shift by bumping after a noun or adjective ending in HL or LH or HH.^[67]^[68]

Шаблон:Lang 'all the small baskets'

Шаблон:Lang 'all my money'

With these three the high tone also shifts before a demonstrative suffix:

Шаблон:Lang 'that same one'

Шаблон:Lang 'all these'.^[69]

In this they differ from Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, which do not shift the tone with a demonstrative suffix, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'these other people'. The tone also shifts in the word for 'each', in which Шаблон:Lang has the tones of a relative-clause verb.^[70]

Шаблон:Lang 'everyone'

The following demonstrative adjectives (shown here with the concords for noun classes 1 and 2) usually have a low tone:^[71]

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'that one'

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'this one'

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'this one we're in'

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'that one you mentioned'

Шаблон:Lang (plural Шаблон:Lang) 'which one?'

The last of these, however, usually has an intonational tone after Шаблон:Lang 'is':

Шаблон:Lang 'which is the road?'

The first of these, Шаблон:Lang, can be pronounced Шаблон:Lang with a high tone if referring to someone a long way away.^[72]

Numbers

Chichewa has the numbers 1 to 5 and 10. These all have penultimate high tone except for Шаблон:Lang 'five', which is toneless. The adjectives meaning 'how many?' and 'several' also take the number concords and can be considered part of this group. They are here illustrated with the concords for noun classes 1 and 2 (Шаблон:Lang 'ten' has no concord):

Шаблон:Lang 'one person'

Шаблон:Lang 'two people'

Шаблон:Lang 'three people'

Шаблон:Lang 'four people'

Шаблон:Lang 'five people' (toneless)

Шаблон:Lang 'six people'

Шаблон:Lang 'seven people'

Шаблон:Lang 'ten people'

Шаблон:Lang 'twenty people'

Шаблон:Lang 'how many people?'

Шаблон:Lang 'several people'

The numbers Шаблон:Lang '100' (plural Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang '1000' (plural Шаблон:Lang) exist but are rarely used. It is possible to make other numbers using circumlocutions (e.g. 'five tens and units five and two' = 57) but these are not often heard, the usual practice being to use English numbers instead.

Personal pronouns

The first and second person pronouns are toneless, but the third person pronouns have a high tone:^[73]

Шаблон:Lang 'I'

Шаблон:Lang 'you sg.'

Шаблон:Lang 'he, she'

Шаблон:Lang 'we'

Шаблон:Lang 'you pl., you (polite)'

Шаблон:Lang 'they, he/she (polite)'

These combine with Шаблон:Lang 'am, is, are' as follows:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am'

Шаблон:Lang 'he is' (etc.)

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not'

Шаблон:Lang 'he is not' (also 'surely')

Monosyllables

The following monosyllabic words are commonly used. The following are toneless:

Шаблон:Lang 'it is, they are'

Шаблон:Lang 'in, to, from'

Шаблон:Lang 'on, at'

Шаблон:Lang (m') 'in'

The following have a high tone:

Шаблон:Lang (also Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang etc. according to noun class) 'of'

Шаблон:Lang 'with, and'

Шаблон:Lang 'it isn't'

These words are joined rhythmically to the following word. The high tone can spread to the first syllable of the following word, provided it has at least three syllables:^[74] They can also make a plateau with the following word, if the tones are HLH:

Шаблон:Lang 'Lilongwe' > Шаблон:Lang 'of Lilongwe'

Шаблон:Lang 'prayer' > Шаблон:Lang 'with a prayer'

Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang 'of Malawi'

When Шаблон:Lang is a preposition meaning 'on' or 'at', it is usually toneless:

Шаблон:Lang 'on the bed, in bed'

But Шаблон:Lang has a tone when it means 'of' following a noun of class 16:

Шаблон:Lang 'underneath (of) the bed'

It also has a tone in certain idiomatic expressions such as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang 'on his own'.

Ideophones

The tones of ideophones (expressive words) have also been investigated by linguists.^[75] Examples are: Шаблон:Lang 'scattering in all directions' (all syllables very high), Шаблон:Lang 'lots and lots' (with gradually descending tones). The tonal patterns of ideophones do not necessarily conform to the patterns of other words in the language.

Lexical tones of verbs

Chichewa verbs are mostly toneless in their basic form, although a few have a high tone (usually on the final vowel). However, unlike the situation with the lexical tones of nouns, there is no correlation at all between the high-toned verbs in Chichewa and the high-toned verbs in other Bantu languages. The obvious conclusion is that the high tones of verbs are not inherited from an earlier stage of Bantu but have developed independently in Chichewa.^[11]

When a verbal extension is added to a high-toned root, the resulting verb is also usually high-toned, e.g.

Шаблон:Lang 'sleep' > Шаблон:Lang 'sleep together'

Certain extensions, especially those which change a verb from transitive to intransitive, or which make it intensive, also add a tone. According to Kanerva (1990) and Mchombo (2004), the passive ending Шаблон:Lang also adds a high tone, but this appears to be true only of the Nkhotakota dialect which they describe.^[76]

High-toned verb roots are comparatively rare (only about 13% of roots),^[77] though the proportion rises when verbs with stative and intensive extensions are added. In addition there are a number of verbs, such as Шаблон:Lang 'find' which can be pronounced either way. In the monolingual dictionary Mtanthauziramawu wa Chinyanja 2683 verbs are given, with 10% marked as high-toned, and 4% as having either tone. In the Southern Region of Malawi, some speakers do not pronounce the tones of high-toned verbs at all or only sporadically.

The difference between high and low-toned verbs is neutralised when they are used in a verb tense which has a high tone on the penultimate or on the final syllable.

Three irregular verbs have a tone on the penultimate syllable:

Шаблон:Lang 'do so'

Шаблон:Lang 'do like this'

Шаблон:Lang 'do what?

The view held in Mtenje (1986) that Chichewa also has 'rising-tone' verbs has been dropped in his more recent work.^[78]

Low-toned verbs

Шаблон:Lang 'come'

Шаблон:Lang 'do'

Шаблон:Lang 'go away'

Шаблон:Lang 'know'

Шаблон:Lang 'arrive'

Шаблон:Lang 'explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'want'

Шаблон:Lang 'ask'

Шаблон:Lang 'think'

Шаблон:Lang 'buy'

Шаблон:Lang 'sell'

Шаблон:Lang 'take hold of'

Шаблон:Lang 'sing'

Шаблон:Lang 'sit, live'

Шаблон:Lang 'meet'

Шаблон:Lang 'speak'

Шаблон:Lang 'write'

Шаблон:Lang 'enter'

Шаблон:Lang 'die'

Шаблон:Lang 'say'

Шаблон:Lang 'see'

Шаблон:Lang 'do, make'

Шаблон:Lang 'give (someone)'

Шаблон:Lang 'hand over'

Шаблон:Lang 'go'

Шаблон:Lang 'laugh'

Шаблон:Lang 'change'

Шаблон:Lang 'take'

Шаблон:Lang 'help'

Шаблон:Lang 'tell'

Шаблон:Lang 'put on (clothes)'

Шаблон:Lang 'be difficult'

Шаблон:Lang 'begin'

Шаблон:Lang 'answer'

Шаблон:Lang 'go, walk'

Monosyllabic verbs

Monosyllabic verbs such as the following are all low-toned, although the derived nouns Шаблон:Lang 'death' and Шаблон:Lang 'valley' have a tone:

Шаблон:Lang 'steal'

Шаблон:Lang 'be dark, be black'

Шаблон:Lang 'die'

Шаблон:Lang 'fall'

Шаблон:Lang 'leak'

Шаблон:Lang 'hear'

Шаблон:Lang 'drink'

Шаблон:Lang 'be like, resemble'

Шаблон:Lang 'kill'

Шаблон:Lang 'be ripe, cooked'

Шаблон:Lang 'break'

Шаблон:Lang 'finish, be able'

Шаблон:Lang 'be sharp'

Шаблон:Lang 'be deep'

There are also two irregular monosyllabic verbs ending in -i:

Шаблон:Lang 'be'

Шаблон:Lang 'say'

High-toned verbs

Шаблон:Lang 'hide (something)'

Шаблон:Lang 'be hidden'

Шаблон:Lang 'be surprised'

Шаблон:Lang 'complain'

Шаблон:Lang 'sleep'

Шаблон:Lang 'forget'

Шаблон:Lang 'refuse'

Шаблон:Lang 'love'

Шаблон:Lang 'be in error'

Шаблон:Lang 'fail'

Шаблон:Lang 'learn'

Шаблон:Lang 'leave'

Шаблон:Lang 'throw away'

Шаблон:Lang 'run'

Шаблон:Lang 'be tired'

Шаблон:Lang 'remain'

Шаблон:Lang 'be wounded'

Шаблон:Lang 'ought'

Шаблон:Lang 'go out (of fire or lights)'

Verbs with either tone

Шаблон:Lang 'be bad'

Шаблон:Lang 'be bent'

Шаблон:Lang 'be angry'

Шаблон:Lang 'tell a lie'

Шаблон:Lang 'avoid'

Шаблон:Lang 'find'

Шаблон:Lang 'miss, be missing'

Шаблон:Lang 'thank'

Шаблон:Lang 'irritate, make itch'

Stative verbs

Most intransitive verbs with the endings Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang derived from simpler verb-stems are high-toned. This is especially true when a transitive verb has been turned by a suffix into an intransitive one: Шаблон:Colbegin

Шаблон:Lang 'happen' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'do')

Шаблон:Lang 'be cut' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'cut')

Шаблон:Lang 'be known' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'know')

Шаблон:Lang 'be necessary' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'want')

Шаблон:Lang 'be at ease' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'free')

Шаблон:Lang 'be understood' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'hear')

Шаблон:Lang 'be damaged' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'damage')

Шаблон:Lang 'be possible' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'finish, manage to')

Шаблон:Lang 'be broken' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'break')

Шаблон:Lang 'fly; be revealed' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'reveal')

Шаблон:Lang 'be in difficulty' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'cause a problem for')

However, there are some common exceptions, such as the following, which are low-toned:

Шаблон:Lang 'seem' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'see')

Шаблон:Lang 'come out, emerge' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'remove a burden')

The ending Шаблон:Lang is also low-toned when it has a transitive meaning, unless the underlying verb has a high tone:

Шаблон:Lang 'park (a car)' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'stand')

Шаблон:Lang 'put to bed (e.g. in hospital)' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'lie down, sleep')

Intensive verbs

Intensive verbs with the endings Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang always have a high tone on the final syllable, even when derived from low-toned verbs. A few intensive verbs with the endings Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang are also high-toned:^[79] Шаблон:Colbegin

Шаблон:Lang 'to want very much' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'want')

Шаблон:Lang 'inspect' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'see')

Шаблон:Lang 'understand well' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'hear')

Шаблон:Lang 'beat severely' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'hit')

Шаблон:Lang 'examine carefully' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'look at')

Шаблон:Lang 'try hard' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'try')

Шаблон:Lang 'go further' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'go')

Шаблон:Lang 'be overcooked' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'burn, be ripe')

Grammatical tones of verbs

Affirmative tonal patterns

Шаблон:See

Each tense in Chichewa is associated with a particular tonal pattern, which is the same for every verb in that tense, allowing for adjustments when the verb has only one or two syllables. The numbers here followed for the affirmative tenses are those given in Downing & Mtenje (2017). Hyphens and accents are added for clarity; they are not part of standard Chichewa or Chinyanja orthography.

Pattern 1 (-a-)

The following tenses are toneless:^[80]

Шаблон:Lang 'I have helped' (Perfect)

Шаблон:Lang 'I can help' (Potential)

Шаблон:Lang 'if/when I help' (ka-Conditional)^[81]

Шаблон:Lang 'if it were not for him'^[82]

Also toneless is the bare imperative, which is dealt with in a separate section below:

Шаблон:Lang 'help!'

If the verb stem has a high tone, the tone can easily be heard on the final syllable:

Шаблон:Lang 'I have run'

When an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him'/'her' is added, its tone can easily be heard. The tone may optionally spread in verbs of 3 syllables or more:

Шаблон:Lang 'I have explained to him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I have helped him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I have seen him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I have killed him'

In a high-toned verb there is a tone on the final syllable of the verb. In a two-syllable verb it makes a plateau with the tone of the object-marker:^[83]

Шаблон:Lang 'I have found him'

In most dialects, the reflexive marker Шаблон:Lang has the same tones as Шаблон:Lang. But some speakers, for example in Nkhotakota, Шаблон:Lang adds an extra tone on the penultimate, making pattern 5:^[84]

Шаблон:Lang 'I have helped myself' (Lilongwe)

Шаблон:Lang 'I have helped myself' (Nkhotakota)

Pattern 2 (-é)

In this pattern there is a tone on the final vowel. The main tense with this pattern is the present subjunctive. The final vowel changes to -e:^[85]

Шаблон:Lang 'I should explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should see'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should eat'

The same tones are heard when the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and' or Шаблон:Lang 'come and' are added to the imperative. The aspect-marker itself becomes toneless:

Шаблон:Lang 'go and help!'

Шаблон:Lang 'come and see!'

If an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him, her' is added, the tone of the object-marker is heard on the syllable following the object-marker, except in monosyllabic verbs. In three-syllable verbs, the two tones link into a plateau. In one- and two-syllable verbs, the final tone is deleted by Meeussen's Rule:^[86]

Шаблон:Lang 'I should explain to him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should see him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should kill him'

Similarly, if an object-marker is added to an imperative, there is a tone after the object-marker:

Шаблон:Lang 'help him!'

Шаблон:Lang 'go and help him!'

Шаблон:Lang 'come and see him!'

But if the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and' or Шаблон:Lang 'come and' are added to the subjunctive, the tones change to pattern 5 (see below):

Шаблон:Lang 'I should go and help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should go and help him'

When negative, the subjunctive has the infix Шаблон:Lang, and the tone is on the penultimate, except in monosyllabic verbs (see negative pattern 2 below). All other tones, such as that of the object-marker, are deleted:

Шаблон:Lang 'I should not help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should not help him'

But if the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang is added to the negative, the tones change to pattern 5:

Шаблон:Lang 'you should never help'

Шаблон:Lang 'you should never help him'

Pattern 3 (-ná-, -dá-)

In this pattern, there is a tone on the tense-marker itself. In some dialects this tone spreads, when the verb has three or more syllables. The remote perfect (simple past) tense can be made with Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang being preferred in writing:^[87]

Шаблон:Lang 'I explained, I have explained'^[88]

Шаблон:Lang 'I helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'I saw'

Шаблон:Lang 'I ate'

When the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and', or an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang, is added, it has a tone. The tone of Шаблон:Lang can spread, but the tone of an object-marker does not spread:^[48]^[43]

Шаблон:Lang 'I went and helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'I helped him'

When the verb is monosyllabic, the tones are as follows. The tone of Шаблон:Lang remains stable, but the tone of Шаблон:Lang is bumped to the final:^[48]

Шаблон:Lang 'I went and killed'

Шаблон:Lang 'I killed him'

The negative form of the tense is made with the prefix Шаблон:Lang, the tone of which spreads; there is also a tone on the penultimate. The final vowel changes to -e:

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't see'

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't eat'

Another tense with this pattern is the Perfect Potential. This can be made with Шаблон:Lang, or sometimes Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang 'I would have helped'^[89]

Pattern 4 (-ku-)

In pattern 4, the tone is right-shifted or proclitic, and is heard on the syllable following the tense-marker. A typical tense with this tone pattern is the Present Continuous:^[90]

Шаблон:Lang 'I am explaining'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am coming'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am eating'

If the verb is monosyllabic, the tone sometimes spreads backwards or regresses to the penultimate:

Шаблон:Lang (also pronounced Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang)^[91] 'I am eating'

Other tenses in this pattern are the Imperfect and the Recent Past, the infinitive, and tenses which include the infix Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang 'I was helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I helped (today)' (Recent Past)

Шаблон:Lang 'to help'

Шаблон:Lang 'help (at once)!'^[92]

Шаблон:Lang 'let me help!'

The pattern is also found when the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'just' is added to a toneless tense:

Шаблон:Lang 'just help!'

Шаблон:Lang 'if I just help'

However, when Шаблон:Lang 'just' is added to other tenses, there are tones before and after Шаблон:Lang (pattern 8):^[93]

Шаблон:Lang 'I am just helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I was just helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually just help'

When an object-marker or the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang is added to tenses in this pattern or pattern 8, an extra tone is heard. In 4 or 5-syllable verbs this second tone is heard on the penultimate, in three-syllable verbs on the final, in two-syllable verbs on the final with a plateau. In one-syllable verbs it disappears. The first tone can spread in longer verbs:^[94]

Шаблон:Lang 'I am explaining to him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am helping him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am hitting him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am killing him'

But when Шаблон:Lang is added to Шаблон:Lang, the tones change to pattern 5:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am always helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'to be regularly helping'

The negative of the Present Continuous, Imperfect, and Recent Past remains in the same pattern but with the addition of Шаблон:Lang at the beginning. The tone of Шаблон:Lang spreads to the subject-marker:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I was not helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I did not help (just now)' (rarely used)

The negative infinitive, on the other hand, has negative tone pattern 2:

Шаблон:Lang 'not to help'

Pattern 5 (-nká-)

In this pattern there is a tone on the tense-marker and on the penultimate. The first tone does not spread, but there is a fall to a low tone after it. The second tone is lower in pitch than the first. In a two-syllable verb, the second tone is 'bumped' to the final, and there may either be a plateau, or the two tones may be separate. In a monosyllabic verb, the second tone is lost by Meeussen's Rule. An example of this pattern is the Remote Imperfect with Шаблон:Lang:^[44]

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to explain, I was explaining (in the past)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to help, I was helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to hit, I was hitting'

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to eat, I was eating'

Other tenses with this pattern are the subjunctives with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, various tenses with the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang, and tenses with negative pattern 3a (see below):

Шаблон:Lang 'I should be helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should help (later)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should help (there)'

Шаблон:Lang 'whenever I help'

Шаблон:Lang 'to be helping, to help regularly'

Шаблон:Lang 'I'm always helping'^[95]

Шаблон:Lang 'I can't help'^[96]

Also included in this group is the Continuative Subjunctive, but because the tense-marker has two syllables, the tones in shorter verbs are slightly different from the above:^[97]

Шаблон:Lang 'I should help meanwhile'

Шаблон:Lang 'let me go meanwhile'

Шаблон:Lang 'let me eat meanwhile'

The Continuative Subjunctive is also heard with tone pattern 9, i.e. with a single tone on the penultimate.

With all tenses in pattern 5, when an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him/her' or the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and' is added, it loses its tone. A monosyllabic verb with an object-marker acts like a two-syllable verb that has no object-marker:^[98]

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to hit him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I used to kill them'

In relative clauses and after Шаблон:Lang 'if', pattern 5 affirmative verbs change to pattern 6:

Шаблон:Lang 'who used to help, who was helping'

When negative, pattern 5 has various patterns according to the tense. The Remote Imperfect has three separate tones.^[99] The second is slightly lower than the first, and the third a little lower than the second:

Шаблон:Lang 'I wasn't helping, I didn't use to help'

The negative Future Subjunctive has a single tone on the penultimate. All earlier tones are deleted:

Шаблон:Lang 'I shouldn't help (in future)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I shouldn't go and help'

The -zí- subjunctive has no direct negative, but the negative subjunctive with Шаблон:Lang is often used instead. It has pattern 5. The negative of the continuous infinitive also has pattern 5:

Шаблон:Lang 'I should never be helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'never to be helping'

The Continuative Subjunctive has no negative.^[96]

Pattern 6 (-ma-)

The most common tense in this pattern is the Present Habitual, in which, just as with pattern 5, there is a sharp fall after the first tone, with no spreading:^[100]

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually go'

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually eat'

The imperfective future tenses with -zi- are also in this pattern. (These should not be confused with the necessitative -zi- above, which has pattern 5.)

Шаблон:Lang 'I will be helping (soon)'^[101]

Шаблон:Lang 'I will be helping (at a future time)'^[102]

Downing and Mtenje also include the Remote Past tense in this pattern, in which there are tones on the first two syllables:

Шаблон:Lang 'I had helped'

In relative clauses, because there is already a tone on the initial syllable, there is no change of tone.

When an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang or the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and' is added, it loses its tone, except in a one-syllable verb:

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I usually eat them'

When negative, the Present Habitual has negative pattern 4, in which the penultimate tone appears only when an object-marker is added, but the Remote Past has the penultimate tone even without an object-marker:

Шаблон:Lang 'I never usually help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I never usually help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I had not helped' (rarely used)

Pattern 7 (-dzá-)

Downing and Mtenje's pattern 7 can also be divided into two varieties. The Present Simple (Near Future) has a tone on the subject-prefix which may spread if the verb has three or more syllables:^[103]

Шаблон:Lang 'I will explain' (near future)

Шаблон:Lang 'I will help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I will go'

Шаблон:Lang 'I will eat'

In the Remote Future (or Distant Future) and Contingent Future^[104] tenses there is usually a tone on the subject-marker and another on Шаблон:Lang (which may spread):

Шаблон:Lang 'I am going to help (in future)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am going to help (when I get there)'

But some speakers pronounce these two tenses with a tone on the tense-marker only:^[103]

Шаблон:Lang 'I am going to help (in future)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I'm going to help' (today)

When an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him, her' is added, it keeps its tone; but it does not spread. In a monosyllabic verb, the tone of the object-marker is not lost but is bumped to the final, with a plateau:^[105]

Шаблон:Lang 'I'll help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I'll hit him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I'll kill him'

The tones are the same when Шаблон:Lang is added:^[105]

Шаблон:Lang 'I'm going to help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I'm going to hit him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I'm going to kill him'

The negative of all three tenses has negative pattern 2, with a single tone on the penultimate, earlier tones being deleted:^[106]

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not going to help him' (near future)

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not going to help him' (remote future)

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not going to help him (there)' (contingent future)

Pattern 8 (-ngo-)

In this pattern there is a tone before and after the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang (which itself always has a low tone):^[107]

Шаблон:Lang 'I will just help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am just helping'

The infix Шаблон:Lang always has this intonation with a tone before and after it, except when added to a toneless tense. In this case the first tone is absent:

Шаблон:Lang 'I have just helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'if I just help'

Шаблон:Lang 'just help!'

Downing and Mtenje also include the following tense in this pattern, although it is slightly different, since the two tones usually join into a plateau:

Шаблон:Lang 'after I helped, having helped'

In this pattern, when an object-marker is added, the tones in the second half of the verb are the same as for pattern 4.

Pattern 9 (persistive -kada-)

Pattern 9 consists of a single tone on the penultimate (or final if the verb is monosyllabic). It is used for the Persistive tense with Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (rare except with the verb Шаблон:Lang); also for the imperatives prefixed by Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am still helping'^[108]

Шаблон:Lang 'I am still'

Шаблон:Lang 'be helping'^[109]

Шаблон:Lang 'carry on helping meanwhile'^[109]

Forms like the following with Шаблон:Lang also have this pattern:

Шаблон:Lang 'while he was standing' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'to stand')^[108]

Шаблон:Lang 'since beginning' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'to begin)

Шаблон:Lang 'an old person' (cf. Шаблон:Lang 'to grow old')

Negative patterns

Negative pattern 1

Under the heading negative pattern 1, Downing & Mtenje group together tenses which have the same tone pattern as the affirmative tense, apart from the addition of the negative-marker Шаблон:Lang (which has a doubled tone) at the beginning.^[110]

The following have the affirmative pattern 4 ending both when negative and affirmative. When negative they have in addition the prefix Шаблон:Lang, of which the tone spreads to the subject-marker:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I was not helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I am just helping'

Another tense in this group is the Remote Imperfect (Шаблон:Lang), which has three tones, the second of which is on the tense-marker itself and the third on the penultimate:

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't use to help, I wasn't helping (in the past)'

Mtenje adds the negatives of the Recent Past and the Remote Past, with final vowel -a. However, these are almost never found in modern standard Chichewa:^[111]

Шаблон:Lang 'I did not help (just now)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I had not helped'

Negative pattern 2

The negative pattern of this group is a single tone on the penultimate syllable (or final in a monosyllabic verb). This pattern is used for the negative near future:^[112]

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't go'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't eat'

Other negative tenses with this intonation are the Remote Future, negative subjunctive and future subjunctive, the negative infinitive, and the negative Perfect:

Шаблон:Lang 'I will not help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should not help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should not help (later)'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I have not helped (yet)'

All tones earlier in the verb (except for Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang) are deleted, so when an object-marker is added, it too is toneless, unless the verb is monosyllabic:

Шаблон:Lang 'I have not helped him (yet)'

Шаблон:Lang 'I have never helped him'

But Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang add a tone, making pattern 5 (= negative pattern 3a):

Шаблон:Lang 'I will not be helping' (near future)

Шаблон:Lang 'I will not be helping' (remote future)

Шаблон:Lang 'never to help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I can't help'

When these tenses are used with a one-syllable verb the tone is normally heard on the final syllable:

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't eat'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should not eat'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to eat'

But when the infix Шаблон:Lang is present, or an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him, her', the tone is on that:

Шаблон:Lang 'I am not going to eat'

Шаблон:Lang 'I haven't eaten yet'

Шаблон:Lang 'I should not kill him'

Negative pattern 3a

Downing and Mtenje include two different patterns under the heading of negative pattern 3. One has tones on the tense or aspect-marker and the penultimate. The first tone does not spread, so that it resembles affirmative pattern 5. This pattern is found in the negative of the Present Potential, and also when the negative subjunctive, infinitive, and Remote Future have the continuous aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang 'I can't help' (first pronunciation)

Шаблон:Lang 'I shouldn't be helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to be helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'I won't be helping'

Negative pattern 3b

The other pattern has tones on the initial syllable (which spreads) and penultimate, and so resembles affirmative pattern 6. This pattern is found in the negative of the Remote Perfect (Past Simple) and also as an alternative pronunciation of the negative Present Potential:

Шаблон:Lang 'I didn't help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I can't help' (alternative pronunciation)

In both patterns, just as with affirmative patterns 5 and 6, when the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang 'go and' or an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang 'him, her' is added, it loses its tone.

Negative pattern 4

In this pattern, the verb stem itself is toneless, unless an object-marker is added:^[113]

Шаблон:Lang 'I don't help'^[114]

Шаблон:Lang 'I never help'

Шаблон:Lang 'I wouldn't (or couldn't) have helped'

When an object-marker is added, there is a tone on the penultimate. The object-marker itself loses its tone:

Шаблон:Lang 'I don't help him'^[115]

Шаблон:Lang 'I never help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'I wouldn't have helped him'

In monosyllabic verbs, in the Central Region, the tone on the subject-marker disappears in the Present Simple and the tones are:^[114]

Шаблон:Lang 'I don't eat'

Relative clause patterns

Certain tenses have a different tonal pattern when used in relative clauses. Stevick calls this intonation the 'relative mood' of the verb.^[116] Often the use of relative clause intonation alone, without a relative pronoun, can show that a verb is being used in the meaning of a relative clause. Mchombo gives the following example:^[117]

The same intonation patterns can also be found in some types of temporal, conditional, or concessive clause.

Relative pattern 1

In some tenses the relative clause pattern is the same as the main clause pattern. This includes all affirmative tenses (including the Remote Future) which already have a high tone on the initial syllable, and all negative tenses, even those starting with a low tone. Downing & Mtenje refer to these as Relative tone pattern 1.^[118]

Relative pattern 2

Relative pattern 2 is the relative clause version of affirmative pattern 4. There is a high tone on the initial syllable of the verb, which often links in a plateau with the tone after the tense-marker:

Шаблон:Lang 'who is helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'who was helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'who helped (just now)' (Recent Past tense)

The same intonation is also found in certain temporal and conditional clause verbs:

Шаблон:Lang '(while) I am/was helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'after I helped'; 'if I were to help'^[119]

Relative pattern 3

In this pattern, in longer verbs, a high tone is added to the initial syllable and the penultimate. However, there are slightly different versions of this pattern according the tense.

In the Present Potential tense, the first tone does not spread and the infix Шаблон:Lang always has a low tone. The second tone remains on the penultimate, except in a monosyllabic verb:^[120]

Шаблон:Lang 'who can explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'who can help'

Шаблон:Lang 'who can see'

Шаблон:Lang 'who can die'

The Remote Imperfect with Шаблон:Lang has the same tones:

Шаблон:Lang 'who was explaining'

Шаблон:Lang 'who was helping'

Шаблон:Lang 'who was seeing'

Шаблон:Lang 'who was dying'

However, in the Remote Perfect (Past Simple) tense, the intonation is slightly different. Here the first tone usually doubles, and in a two-syllable verb, the second tone is often 'bumped' to the final syllable:

Шаблон:Lang 'who explained'

Шаблон:Lang 'who helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'who saw' (yesterday or earlier)

Шаблон:Lang 'who died'

In the Perfect tense, the first tone also often spreads, and in three or four-syllable verbs, the second tone is often bumped to the final syllable. When the verb is monosyllabic the second tone is lost:^[121]

Шаблон:Lang 'who has explained'

Шаблон:Lang 'who has helped'

Шаблон:Lang 'who has seen'

Шаблон:Lang 'who has died'

Relative pattern 3 intonation is also used in some kinds of temporal and conditional clause verbs:

Шаблон:Lang 'before I finish'

Шаблон:Lang 'if I had helped'

Relative intonation of the subjunctive

In the relative subjunctive, a tone is added on the initial syllable, but the second tone remains on the final:

Шаблон:Lang 'what may happen, let it happen' (i.e., 'come what may')

In the future subjunctive, the tones similarly are on the initial and final syllables:

Шаблон:Lang 'when I help (in future)'

This intonation is also found after Шаблон:Lang 'if':

Шаблон:Lang 'if you like it'

Relative patterns of Шаблон:Lang 'I am'

The irregular verb Шаблон:Lang 'I am', which is normally toneless, becomes Шаблон:Lang in a relative or temporal clause:

Шаблон:Lang 'stay where you are!'

Шаблон:Lang 'when I was a boy'^[122]

The applied form, used in clauses of manner, is Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang 'the way he is'

Шаблон:Lang 'the way he was (this morning)'

Шаблон:Lang 'the way he was (yesterday)'

The Present Persistive tense of this verb, Шаблон:Lang 'I am still', has tones on the first and last syllable when used in a relative or temporal clause. It is often heard in the following phrase:

Шаблон:Lang 'at the moment' (lit. 'it still being now')

Where the relative intonation is used

The relative clause intonation is frequently used in relative clauses, for example after Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang 'who'. The tone of Шаблон:Lang spreads to make a plateau with the high tone of the relative clause verb:^[123]

Шаблон:Lang^[124]
'Where are the oranges which you bought?'

Шаблон:Lang^[125]
'He will find the dog which he lost'

With the relative pronoun omitted, the relative clause intonation alone shows that the verb is being used in a relative way:

Шаблон:Lang^[126]
'the month which has finished', i.e. last month

Шаблон:Lang
'This week which is coming', i.e. next week.

Questions with Шаблон:Lang 'who?' and Шаблон:Lang 'what?' are expressed as cleft sentences, using relative clause intonation:

Шаблон:Lang
'Who is sitting on the chair?' (lit. 'the one who has sat down on the chair is who?')

Шаблон:Lang
'What's happened?' (lit. 'the thing that has happened is what?')

A common idiom is to use a form of the verb Шаблон:Lang 'begin' followed by the relative Perfect:

Шаблон:Lang
'Eat some nsima first, then let's talk'

Temporal clauses

The relative clause intonations are also used in temporal clauses after Шаблон:Lang 'when', which is derived from the relative pronoun:

Шаблон:Lang
'He was getting dressed when I entered'

Шаблон:Lang
'You will have eaten by the time I get to your house'

The word Шаблон:Lang with dependent clause intonation is often used as a temporal clause.^[122] It can refer to past or present circumstances, according to the context. When followed by another word, the tone is doubled, making Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang^[122]
'He was very sick when he was a child'

Шаблон:Lang^[127]
'When rain is falling'

The participial tenses with Шаблон:Lang and the persistive Шаблон:Lang also all use the relative clause intonation. These refer to actions simultaneous with, earlier than, or subsequent to the main verb:^[128]^[129]

Шаблон:Lang
'I saw him getting on a bus'

Шаблон:Lang
'When he saw the money, he didn't believe it'

Шаблон:Lang
'I arrived before people had gone to bed'

Шаблон:Lang
'I began when I was still at school'

Clauses of manner

Clauses of manner are also expressed as a form of relative clause following Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.^[130] These usually use the applied form of the verb ending in Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. The applied form of Шаблон:Lang is Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang
'As he used to do'

Шаблон:Lang
'The way things are'

Conditional clauses

The dependent clause intonation is also used in conditional clauses, notably those with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang:

Шаблон:Lang^[131]
'If I had known (that you would come back from the hunt empty-handed), I would have cooked some vegetables.'

Шаблон:Lang

'If I were to go, what might happen?'

But the conditional tenses with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are toneless:

Шаблон:Lang^[132]
'Were it not for the traditional doctor(s), this boy would not be alive'

The relative intonation is similarly used after Шаблон:Lang 'if':

Шаблон:Lang
'It isn't known if she has died'

However, when Шаблон:Lang means 'as if', the ordinary intonation is used.

Concessive clauses

This intonation can also make a concessive clause with the tense Шаблон:Lang.^[133]^[134]

Шаблон:Lang^[133]
'Even if he goes, he won't find him there'

Шаблон:Lang^[108]
'However much I may suffer, I shan't complain'

Шаблон:Lang
'Tip; small reward' (lit. 'though it be small')

The word Шаблон:Lang can also sometimes be followed by the relative intonation:

Шаблон:Lang^[135]
'Even when rain is falling'

Infinitive

The Infinitive has a proclitic tone, that is, a high tone is heard on the syllable immediately following the prefix Шаблон:Lang. This tone may spread in a verb of four syllables or longer:^[136]

Шаблон:Lang 'to explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'to help'

Шаблон:Lang 'to see'

Шаблон:Lang 'to eat'

With a high-toned verb, the extra tone can be heard on the final only in verbs of three or more syllables. In a three-syllable verb, the tones form a plateau; in a two-syllable verb the second tone disappears by Meeussen's Rule. There are no high-toned monosyllabic verbs:^[137]

Шаблон:Lang 'to forgive'

Шаблон:Lang 'to complain'

Шаблон:Lang 'to deceive'

Шаблон:Lang 'to sleep'

When an object-marker or one of the aspect-markers Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang are added, a tone is added on the penultimate in 5 or 4-syllable verbs, but on the final in verbs of three or two syllables. In monosyllabic verbs the second tone is deleted:^[138]

Шаблон:Lang 'to explain to him'

Шаблон:Lang 'to help him' (second tone on the final)

Шаблон:Lang 'to see him'

Шаблон:Lang 'to kill him'

Шаблон:Lang 'to go and explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'to go and help' (second tone on the final)

Шаблон:Lang 'to go and see'

Шаблон:Lang 'to go and eat'

However, when the aspect-marker Шаблон:Lang is added, the tones change to pattern 5:

Шаблон:Lang 'to be regularly explaining'

Шаблон:Lang 'to be regularly helping' (second tone on the penultimate)

Шаблон:Lang 'to be regularly seeing'

Шаблон:Lang 'to be regularly eating'

The negative Infinitive is formed with the infix Шаблон:Lang. There is a single tone on the penultimate (or final in monosyllabic verbs):

Шаблон:Lang 'not to explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'to fail to help'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to see'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to eat'

The tone of an object-marker such as Шаблон:Lang or of the aspect-markers Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang is deleted, except in a monosyllabic verb, where it carries the tone:^[139]

Шаблон:Lang 'not to explain to him'

Шаблон:Lang 'to fail to help him'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to see him'

Шаблон:Lang 'not to kill him'

Imperative

The imperative is toneless, except in verbs that have their own lexical high tone on the final syllable. A monosyllabic verb requires a supporting vowel Шаблон:Lang:^[140]

Шаблон:Lang 'explain'

Шаблон:Lang 'help'

Шаблон:Lang 'see'

The suffix Шаблон:Lang makes the imperative plural or polite: