Английская Википедия:Chinese classifier
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:See also Шаблон:Multiple image
The modern Chinese varieties make frequent use of what are called classifiers or measure words. One use of classifiers is when a noun is qualified by a numeral or demonstrative. In the Chinese equivalent of a phrase such as "three books" or "that person", it is normally necessary to insert an appropriate classifier between the numeral/demonstrative and the noun. For example, in Standard Mandarin,[note 1] the first of these phrases would be Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl, where Шаблон:Transl means 'three', Шаблон:Transl means 'books', and Шаблон:Transl is the required classifier. When a noun stands alone without any determiner, no classifier is needed. There are also various other uses of classifiers: for example, when placed after a noun rather than before it, or when repeated, a classifier signifies a plural or indefinite quantity.
The terms "classifier" and "measure word" are frequently used interchangeably (as equivalent to the Chinese term Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) liàngcí, which literally means "measure word"). Sometimes, however, the two are distinguished, with classifier denoting a particle without any particular meaning of its own, as in the example above, and measure word denoting a word for a particular quantity or measurement of something, such as 'drop', 'cupful', or 'liter'. The latter type also includes certain words denoting lengths of time, units of currency, etc. These two types are alternatively called count-classifier and mass-classifier, since the first type can only meaningfully be used with count nouns, while the second is used particularly with mass nouns. However, the grammatical behavior of words of the two types is largely identical.
Most nouns have one or more particular classifiers associated with them, often depending on the nature of the things they denote. For example, many nouns denoting flat objects such as tables, papers, beds, and benches use the classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) Шаблон:Transl, whereas many long and thin objects use Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) Шаблон:Transl. The total number of classifiers in Chinese may be put at anywhere from a few dozen to several hundred, depending on how they are counted. The classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang), pronounced Шаблон:Zh or Шаблон:Zh in Mandarin, apart from being the standard classifier for many nouns, also serves as a general classifier, which may often (but not always) be used in place of other classifiers; in informal and spoken language, native speakers tend to use this classifier far more than any other, even though they know which classifier is "correct" when asked. Mass-classifiers might be used with all sorts of nouns with which they make sense: for example, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl ('box') may be used to denote boxes of objects, such as lightbulbs or books, even though those nouns would be used with their own appropriate count-classifiers if being counted as individual objects. Researchers have differing views as to how classifier–noun pairings arise: some regard them as being based on innate semantic features of the noun (for example, all nouns denoting "long" objects take a certain classifier because of their inherent longness), while others see them as motivated more by analogy to prototypical pairings (for example, 'dictionary' comes to take the same classifier as the more common word 'book'). There is some variation in the pairings used, with speakers of different dialects often using different classifiers for the same item. Some linguists have proposed that the use of classifier phrases may be guided less by grammar and more by stylistic or pragmatic concerns on the part of a speaker who may be trying to foreground new or important information.
Many other languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area exhibit similar classifier systems, leading to speculation about the origins of the Chinese system. Ancient classifier-like constructions, which used a repeated noun rather than a special classifier, are attested in Old Chinese as early as 1400 BCE, but true classifiers did not appear in these phrases until much later. Originally, classifiers and numbers came after the noun rather than before, and probably moved before the noun sometime after 500 BCE. The use of classifiers did not become a mandatory part of Old Chinese grammar until around 1100 CE. Some nouns became associated with specific classifiers earlier than others; the earliest probably being nouns that signified culturally valued items such as horses and poems. Many words that are classifiers today started out as full nouns; in some cases their meanings have been gradually bleached away so that they are now used only as classifiers.
Usage
In Chinese, a numeral cannot usually quantify a noun by itself; instead, the language relies on classifiers, commonly also referred to as measure words.[note 2] When a noun is preceded by a number, a demonstrative such as this or that, or certain quantifiers such as every, a classifier must normally be inserted before the noun.[1] Thus, while English speakers say "one person" or "this person", Mandarin Chinese speakers say Шаблон:Lang (yí Шаблон:Uline rén, one-Шаблон:Uline person) or Шаблон:Lang (zhè Шаблон:Uline rén, this-Шаблон:Uline person), respectively. If a noun is preceded by both a demonstrative and a number, the demonstrative comes first.[2] (This is just as in English, e.g. "these three cats".) If an adjective modifies the noun, it typically comes after the classifier and before the noun. The general structure of a classifier phrase is
The tables below give examples of common types of classifier phrases.[3] While most English nouns do not require classifiers or measure words (in English, both “five dogs” and “five cups of coffee” are grammatically correct), nearly all Chinese nouns do; thus, in the first table, phrases that have no classifier in English have one in Chinese.
| Шаблон:Green | Шаблон:Teal | Шаблон:Red | Шаблон:Brown | Шаблон:Purple | English equivalent | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Teal-Шаблон:Red-Шаблон:Purple | Шаблон:Teal three |
Шаблон:Red Шаблон:Du |
Шаблон:Purple cat |
"three cats" | |||
| Шаблон:Green-Шаблон:Red-Шаблон:Purple | Шаблон:Green this |
Шаблон:Red Шаблон:Du |
Шаблон:Purple cat |
"this cat" | |||
| Шаблон:Teal-Шаблон:Red | Шаблон:Teal three |
Шаблон:Red Шаблон:Du |
"three (of them)"Шаблон:Big | ||||
| Шаблон:Teal-Шаблон:Red-Шаблон:Brown-Шаблон:Purple | Шаблон:Teal three |
Шаблон:Red Шаблон:Du |
Шаблон:Brown black |
Шаблон:Purple cat |
"three black cats" | ||
| Шаблон:Green-Шаблон:Teal-Шаблон:Red-Шаблон:Brown-Шаблон:Purple | Шаблон:Green this |
Шаблон:Teal three |
Шаблон:Red Шаблон:Du |
Шаблон:Brown black |
Шаблон:Purple cat |
"these three black cats" | |
| Шаблон:Teal-Шаблон:Red-Шаблон:Brown | Шаблон:Teal three |
Шаблон:Red Шаблон:Du |
Шаблон:Brown** black |
"three black ones"Шаблон:Big | |||
| * When "cats" is already evident from the context, as in "How many cats do you have?" "I have three."/"Three." ** When an adjective in Chinese appears by itself, with no noun after it, Шаблон:Lang is added to identify it as an adjective because many nouns can be used as verbs, adjectives and/or adverbs (e.g. 统一 "unite" can be used as verb, adjective and adverb; 黑 "black" can be used as noun (as the color), verb (transferred meanings, "defame" and "hack into"; but cannot be used as "to make something black"), adjective and adverb). The use of Шаблон:Lang in this example is not related to the presence of classifiers. | |||||||
On the other hand, when a noun is not counted or introduced with a demonstrative, a classifier is not necessary: for example, there is a classifier in Шаблон:Lang (sān liàng chē, three-Шаблон:Uline car, "three cars") but not in Шаблон:Lang (wǒ-de chē, me-possessive car, "my car").[4] Furthermore, numbers and demonstratives are often not required in Chinese, so speakers may choose not to use one—and thus not to use a classifier. For example, to say "Zhangsan turned into a tree", both Шаблон:Lang (Zhāngsān biànchéng -le yì Шаблон:Uline shù, Zhangsan become PAST one Шаблон:Uline tree) and Шаблон:Lang (Zhāngsān biànchéng -le shù, Zhangsan become PAST tree) are acceptable.[5] The use of classifiers after demonstratives is in fact optional.[6]
It is also possible for a classifier alone to qualify a noun, the numeral ("one") being omitted, as in 买Шаблон:Uline马 mǎi Шаблон:Uline mǎ "buy Шаблон:Uline horse", i.e. "buy a horse".[7]
Specialized uses
In addition to their uses with numbers and demonstratives, classifiers have some other functions. A classifier placed after a noun expresses a plural or indefinite quantity of it. For example, Шаблон:Lang (shū-Шаблон:Uline, book-Шаблон:Uline) means "the books" (e.g. on a shelf, or in a library), whereas the standard pre-nominal construction Шаблон:Lang (yī Шаблон:Uline shū, one-Шаблон:Uline book) means "one book".[8]
Many classifiers may be reduplicated to mean "every". For example, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Uline-Шаблон:Uline rén, Шаблон:Uline-Шаблон:Uline person) signifies "every person".[note 3][9]
A classifier used along with 一 (yī, "one") and after a noun conveys a meaning close to "all of" or "the entire" or "a ___full of".[10] The sentence Шаблон:Lang (tiānkōng yī Шаблон:Uline yún, sky one-Шаблон:Uline cloud), meaning "the sky was full of clouds", uses the classifier Шаблон:Lang (piàn, slice), which refers to the sky, not the clouds.[note 4]
Classifiers may also indicate possession. For example, the Mandarin equivalent of "my book" would often be Шаблон:Lang (wǒ de shū, me-'s book), but in Cantonese this would typically be expressed as Шаблон:Lang (ngo4 bun2 syu1, me-Шаблон:Uline book), with the classifier serving as a possessive marker roughly equivalent to English 's.
Types
The vast majority of classifiers are those that count or classify nouns (nominal classifiers, as in all the examples given so far, as opposed to verbal classifiers).[11] These are further subdivided into count-classifiers and mass-classifiers, described below. In everyday speech, people often use the term "measure word", or its literal Chinese equivalent Шаблон:Lang liàngcí, to cover all Chinese count-classifiers and mass-classifiers,[12] but the types of words grouped under this term are not all the same. Specifically, the various types of classifiers exhibit numerous differences in meaning, in the kinds of words they attach to, and in syntactic behavior.
Chinese has a large number of nominal classifiers; estimates of the number in Mandarin range from "several dozen"[13] or "about 50",[14] to over 900.[15] The range is so large because some of these estimates include all types of classifiers while others include only count-classifiers,[note 5] and because the idea of what constitutes a "classifier" has changed over time. Today, regular dictionaries include 120 to 150 classifiers;[16] the 8822-word Syllabus of Graded Words and Characters for Chinese Proficiency[note 6] (Шаблон:Zh) lists 81;[17] and a 2009 list compiled by Gao Ming and Barbara Malt includes 126.[18] The number of classifiers that are in everyday, informal use, however, may be lower: linguist Mary Erbaugh has claimed that about two dozen "core classifiers" account for most classifier use.[19] As a whole, though, the classifier system is so complex that specialized classifier dictionaries have been published.[18][note 7]
Count-classifiers and mass-classifiers
Within the set of nominal classifiers, linguists generally draw a distinction between "count-classifiers" and "mass-classifiers". True count-classifiers[note 8] are used for naming or counting a single count noun,[15] and have no direct translation in English; for example, Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline shū, one-Шаблон:Uline book) can only be translated in English as "one book" or "a book".[20] Furthermore, count-classifiers cannot be used with mass nouns: just as an English speaker cannot ordinarily say *"five muds", a Chinese speaker cannot say *Шаблон:Lang (wǔ Шаблон:Uline nì, five-Шаблон:Uline mud). For such mass nouns, one must use mass-classifiers.[15][note 9]
Mass-classifiers (true measure words) do not pick out inherent properties of an individual noun like count-classifiers do; rather, they lump nouns into countable units. Thus, mass-classifiers can generally be used with multiple types of nouns; for example, while the mass-classifier Шаблон:Lang (hé, box) can be used to count boxes of lightbulbs (Шаблон:Lang yì Шаблон:Uline dēngpào, "one Шаблон:Uline of lightbulbs") or of books (Шаблон:Lang yì Шаблон:Uline jiàocái, "one Шаблон:Uline of textbooks"), each of these nouns must use a different count-classifier when being counted by itself (Шаблон:Lang yì Шаблон:Uline dēngpào "one lightbulb"; vs. Шаблон:Lang yì Шаблон:Uline jiàocái "one textbook"). While count-classifiers have no direct English translation, mass-classifiers often do: phrases with count-classifiers such as Шаблон:Lang (yí Шаблон:Uline rén, one-Шаблон:Uline person) can only be translated as "one person" or "a person", whereas those with mass-classifiers such as Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline rén, one-Шаблон:Uline-person) can be translated as "a crowd of people". All languages, including English, have mass-classifiers, but count-classifiers are unique to certain "classifier languages", and are not a part of English grammar apart from a few exceptional cases such as head of livestock.[21]
Within the range of mass-classifiers, authors have proposed subdivisions based on the manner in which a mass-classifier organizes the noun into countable units. One of these is measurement units (also called "standard measures"),[22] which all languages must have in order to measure items; this category includes units such as kilometers, liters, or pounds[23] (see list). Like other classifiers, these can also stand without a noun; thus, for example, Шаблон:Lang (bàng, pound) may appear as both Шаблон:Lang (sān Шаблон:Uline ròu, "three Шаблон:Uline of meat") or just Шаблон:Lang (sān Шаблон:Uline, "three Шаблон:Uline", never *Шаблон:Lang sān Шаблон:Uline Шаблон:Uline).[24] Units of currency behave similarly: for example, 十Шаблон:Uline (shí Шаблон:Uline, "ten Шаблон:Uline"), which is short for (for example) 十Шаблон:Uline人民币 (shí Шаблон:Uline rénmínbì, "ten Шаблон:Uline of renminbi"). Other proposed types of mass-classifiers include "collective"[25][note 10] mass-classifiers, such as Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline rén, "a Шаблон:Uline of people"), which group things less precisely; and "container"[26] mass-classifiers which group things by containers they come in, as in Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline zhōu, "a Шаблон:Uline of porridge") or Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline táng, "a Шаблон:Uline of sugar").
The difference between count-classifiers and mass-classifiers can be described as one of quantifying versus categorizing: in other words, mass-classifiers create a unit by which to measure something (i.e. boxes, groups, chunks, pieces, etc.), whereas count-classifiers simply name an existing item.[27] Most words can appear with both count-classifiers and mass-classifiers; for example, pizza can be described as both Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline bǐsà, "one pizza", literally "one Шаблон:Uline of pizza"), using a count-classifier, and as Шаблон:Lang (yí Шаблон:Uline bǐsà, "one Шаблон:Uline of pizza"), using a mass-classifier. In addition to these semantic differences, there are differences in the grammatical behaviors of count-classifiers and mass-classifiers;[28] for example, mass-classifiers may be modified by a small set of adjectives (as in Шаблон:Lang yí dà Шаблон:Uline rén, "a big Шаблон:Uline of people"), whereas count-classifiers usually may not (for example, *Шаблон:Lang yí dà Шаблон:Uline rén is never said for "a big person"; instead the adjective must modify the noun: Шаблон:Lang yí Шаблон:Uline dà rén).[29] Another difference is that count-classifiers may often be replaced by a "general" classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang), gè with no apparent change in meaning, whereas mass-classifiers may not.[30] Syntacticians Lisa Cheng and Rint Sybesma propose that count-classifiers and mass-classifiers have different underlying syntactic structures, with count-classifiers forming "classifier phrases",[note 11] and mass-classifiers being a sort of relative clause that only looks like a classifier phrase.[31] The distinction between count-classifiers and mass-classifiers is often unclear, however, and other linguists have suggested that count-classifiers and mass-classifiers may not be fundamentally different. They posit that "count-classifier" and "mass-classifier" are the extremes of a continuum, with most classifiers falling somewhere in between.[32]
Verbal classifiers
There is a set of "verbal classifiers" used specifically for counting the number of times an action occurs, rather than counting a number of items; this set includes Шаблон:Lang cì, Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang biàn, Шаблон:Lang huí, and Шаблон:Lang xià, which all roughly translate to "times".[33] For example, Шаблон:Lang (wǒ qù-guo sān Шаблон:Uline Běijīng, I go-PAST three-Шаблон:Uline Beijing, "I have been to Beijing three Шаблон:Uline").[34] These words can also form compound classifiers with certain nouns, as in Шаблон:Lang rén cì "person-time", which can be used to count (for example) visitors to a museum in a year (where visits by the same person on different occasions are counted separately).
Another type of verbal classifier indicates the tool or implement used to perform the action. An example is found in the sentence Шаблон:Lang tā tī le wǒ yī jiǎo "he kicked me", or more literally "he kicked me one foot". The word Шаблон:Lang jiǎo, which usually serves as a simple noun meaning "foot", here functions as a verbal classifier reflecting the tool (namely the foot) used to perform the kicking action.
Relation to nouns
Шаблон:Multiple image Different classifiers often correspond to different particular nouns. For example, books generally take the classifier Шаблон:Lang běn, flat objects take Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) zhāng, animals take Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) zhī, machines take Шаблон:Lang tái, large buildings and mountains take Шаблон:Lang zuò, etc. Within these categories are further subdivisions—while most animals take Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) zhī, domestic animals take Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) tóu, long and flexible animals take Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) tiáo, and horses take Шаблон:Lang pǐ. Likewise, while long things that are flexible (such as ropes) often take Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) tiáo, long things that are rigid (such as sticks) take Шаблон:Lang gēn, unless they are also round (like pens or cigarettes), in which case in some dialects they take Шаблон:Lang zhī.[35] Classifiers also vary in how specific they are; some (such as Шаблон:Lang duǒ for flowers and other similarly clustered items) are generally only used with one type, whereas others (such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) tiáo for long and flexible things, one-dimensional things, or abstract items like news reports)[note 12] are much less restricted.[36] Furthermore, there is not a one-to-one relationship between nouns and classifiers: the same noun may be paired with different classifiers in different situations.[37] The specific factors that govern which classifiers are paired with which nouns have been a subject of debate among linguists.
Categories and prototypes
While mass-classifiers do not necessarily bear any semantic relationship to the noun with which they are used (e.g. box and book are not related in meaning, but one can still say "a box of books"), count-classifiers do.[31] The precise nature of that relationship, however, is not certain, since there is so much variability in how objects may be organized and categorized by classifiers. Accounts of the semantic relationship may be grouped loosely into categorical theories, which propose that count-classifiers are matched to objects solely on the basis of inherent features of those objects (such as length or size), and prototypical theories, which propose that people learn to match a count-classifier to a specific prototypical object and to other objects that are like that prototype.[38]
The categorical, "classical"[39] view of classifiers was that each classifier represents a category with a set of conditions; for example, the classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) tiáo would represent a category defined as all objects that meet the conditions of being long, thin, and one-dimensional—and nouns using that classifier must fit all the conditions with which the category is associated. Some common semantic categories into which count-classifiers have been claimed to organize nouns include the categories of shape (long, flat, or round), size (large or small), consistency (soft or hard), animacy (human, animal, or object),[40] and function (tools, vehicles, machines, etc.).[41]
On the other hand, proponents of prototype theory propose that count-classifiers may not have innate definitions, but are associated with a noun that is prototypical of that category, and nouns that have a "family resemblance" with the prototype noun will want to use the same classifier.[note 13] For example, horse in Chinese uses the classifier Шаблон:Lang pǐ, as in Шаблон:Lang (sān Шаблон:Uline mǎ, "three horses")—in modern Chinese the word Шаблон:Lang has no meaning. Nevertheless, nouns denoting animals that look like horses will often also use this same classifier, and native speakers have been found to be more likely to use the classifier Шаблон:Lang the closer an animal looks to a horse.[42] Furthermore, words that do not meet the "criteria" of a semantic category may still use that category because of their association with a prototype. For example, the classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) kē is used for small round items, as in Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline zǐdàn, "one bullet"); when words like Шаблон:Lang (yuánzǐdàn, "atomic bomb") were later introduced into the language they also used this classifier, even though they are not small and round—therefore, their classifier must have been assigned because of the words' association with the word for bullet, which acted as a "prototype".[43] This is an example of "generalization" from prototypes: Erbaugh has proposed that when children learn count-classifiers, they go through stages, first learning a classifier-noun pair only (such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Uline yú, Шаблон:Uline-fish), then using that classifier with multiple nouns that are similar to the prototype (such as other types of fish), then finally using that set of nouns to generalize a semantic feature associated with the classifier (such as length and flexibility) so that the classifier can then be used with new words that the person encounters.[44]
Some classifier-noun pairings are arbitrary, or at least appear to modern speakers to have no semantic motivation.[45] For instance, the classifier Шаблон:Lang bù may be used for movies and novels, but also for cars[46] and telephones.[47] Some of this arbitrariness may be due to what linguist James Tai refers to as "fossilization", whereby a count-classifier loses its meaning through historical changes but remains paired with some nouns. For example, the classifier Шаблон:Lang pǐ used for horses is meaningless today, but in Classical Chinese may have referred to a "team of two horses",[48] a pair of horse skeletons,[49] or the pairing between man and horse.[50][note 14] Arbitrariness may also arise when a classifier is borrowed, along with its noun, from a dialect in which it has a clear meaning to one in which it does not.[51] In both these cases, the use of the classifier is remembered more by association with certain "prototypical" nouns (such as horse) rather than by understanding of semantic categories, and thus arbitrariness has been used as an argument in favor of the prototype theory of classifiers.[51] Gao and Malt propose that both the category and prototype theories are correct: in their conception, some classifiers constitute "well-defined categories", others make "prototype categories", and still others are relatively arbitrary.[52]
Neutralization
In addition to the numerous "specific" count-classifiers described above,[note 15] Chinese has a "general" classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang), pronounced gè in Mandarin.[note 16] This classifier is used for people, some abstract concepts, and other words that do not have special classifiers (such as 汉堡包 hànbǎobāo "hamburger"),[53] and may also be used as a replacement for a specific classifier such as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) zhāng or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) tiáo, especially in informal speech. In Mandarin Chinese, it has been noted as early as the 1940s that the use of Шаблон:Lang is increasing and that there is a general tendency towards replacing specific classifiers with it.[54] Numerous studies have reported that both adults and children tend to use Шаблон:Lang when they do not know the appropriate count-classifier, and even when they do but are speaking quickly or informally.[55] The replacement of a specific classifier with the general Шаблон:Lang is known as classifier neutralization[56] ("Шаблон:Lang" in Chinese, literally "classifier 个-ization"[57]). This occurs especially often among children[58] and aphasics (individuals with damage to language-relevant areas of the brain),[59][60] although normal speakers also neutralize frequently. It has been reported that most speakers know the appropriate classifiers for the words they are using and believe, when asked, that those classifiers are obligatory, but nevertheless use Шаблон:Lang without even realizing it in actual speech.[61] As a result, in everyday spoken Mandarin the general classifier is "hundreds of times more frequent"[62] than the specialized ones.
Nevertheless, Шаблон:Lang has not completely replaced other count-classifiers, and there are still many situations in which it would be inappropriate to substitute it for the required specific classifier.[54] There may be specific patterns behind which classifier-noun pairs may be "neutralized" to use the general classifier, and which may not. Specifically, words that are most prototypical for their categories, such as paper for the category of nouns taking the "flat/square" classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) zhāng, may be less likely to be said with a general classifier.[63]
Variation in usage
Шаблон:Multiple image It is not the case that every noun is only associated with one classifier. Across dialects and speakers there is great variability in the way classifiers are used for the same words, and speakers often do not agree which classifier is best.[64] For example, for cars some people use Шаблон:Lang bù, others use Шаблон:Lang tái, and still others use Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) liàng; Cantonese uses Шаблон:Lang gaa3. Even within a single dialect or a single speaker, the same noun may take different measure words depending on the style in which the person is speaking, or on different nuances the person wants to convey (for instance, measure words can reflect the speaker's judgment of or opinion about the object[65]). An example of this is the word for person, Шаблон:Lang rén, which uses the measure word Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) gè normally, but uses the measure Шаблон:Lang kǒu when counting number of people in a household, Шаблон:Lang wèi when being particularly polite or honorific, and Шаблон:Lang míng in formal, written contexts;[66] likewise, a group of people may be referred to by massifiers as Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline rén, "a Шаблон:Uline of people") or Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline rén, "a Шаблон:Uline of people"): the first is neutral, whereas the second implies that the people are unruly or otherwise being judged poorly.[67]
Some count-classifiers may also be used with nouns that they are not normally related to, for metaphorical effect, as in Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline fánnǎo, "a Шаблон:Uline of worries/troubles").[68] Finally, a single word may have multiple count-classifiers that convey different meanings altogether—in fact, the choice of a classifier can even influence the meaning of a noun. By way of illustration, Шаблон:Lang sān Шаблон:Uline kè means "three class periods" (as in "I have three classes today"), whereas Шаблон:Lang sān Шаблон:Uline kè means "three courses" (as in "I signed up for three courses this semester"), even though the noun in each sentence is the same.[69]
Purpose
In research on classifier systems, and Chinese classifiers in particular, it has been asked why count-classifiers (as opposed to mass-classifiers) exist at all. Mass-classifiers are present in all languages since they are the only way to "count" mass nouns that are not naturally divided into units (as, for example, "three Шаблон:Uline of mud" in English; *"three muds" is ungrammatical). On the other hand, count-classifiers are not inherently mandatory, and are absent from most languages.[21][note 17] Furthermore, count-classifiers are used with an "unexpectedly low frequency";[70] in many settings, speakers avoid specific classifiers by just using a bare noun (without a number or demonstrative) or using the general classifier Шаблон:Lang gè.[71] Linguists and typologists such as Joseph Greenberg have suggested that specific count-classifiers are semantically "redundant", repeating information present within the noun.[72] Count-classifiers can be used stylistically, though,[66] and can also be used to clarify or limit a speaker's intended meaning when using a vague or ambiguous noun; for example, the noun Шаблон:Lang kè "class" can refer to courses in a semester or specific class periods during a day, depending on whether the classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) mén or Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) jié is used.[73]
One proposed explanation for the existence of count-classifiers is that they serve more of a cognitive purpose than a practical one: in other words, they provide a linguistic way for speakers to organize or categorize real objects.[74] An alternative account is that they serve more of a discursive and pragmatic function (a communicative function when people interact) rather than an abstract function within the mind.[71] Specifically, it has been proposed that count-classifiers might be used to mark new or unfamiliar objects within a discourse,[74] to introduce major characters or items in a story or conversation,[75] or to foreground important information and objects by making them bigger and more salient.[76] In this way, count-classifiers might not serve an abstract grammatical or cognitive function, but may help in communication by making important information more noticeable and drawing attention to it.
History
Classifier phrases
Historical linguists have found that phrases consisting of nouns and numbers went through several structural changes in Old Chinese and Middle Chinese before classifiers appeared in them. The earliest forms may have been Number – Noun, like English (i.e. "five horses"), and the less common Noun – Number ("horses five"), both of which are attested in the oracle bone scripts of Pre-Archaic Chinese (circa 1400 BCE to 1000 BCE).[77] The first constructions resembling classifier constructions were Noun – Number – Noun constructions, which were also extant in Pre-Archaic Chinese but less common than Number – Noun. In these constructions, sometimes the first and second nouns were identical (N1 – Number – N1, as in "horses five horses") and other times the second noun was different, but semantically related (N1 – Number – N2). According to some historical linguists, the N2 in these constructions can be considered an early form of count-classifier and has even been called an "echo classifier"; this speculation is not universally agreed on, though.[78] Although true count-classifiers had not appeared yet, mass-classifiers were common in this time, with constructions such as "wine – six – Шаблон:Uline" (the word Шаблон:Lang yǒu represented a wine container) meaning "six yǒu of wine".[78] Examples such as this suggest that mass-classifiers predate count-classifiers by several centuries, although they did not appear in the same word order as they do today.[79]
It is from this type of structure that count-classifiers may have arisen, originally replacing the second noun (in structures where there was a noun rather than a mass-classifier) to yield Noun – Number – Classifier. That is to say, constructions like "horses five horses" may have been replaced by ones like "horses five Шаблон:Uline", possibly for stylistic reasons such as avoiding repetition.[80] Another reason for the appearance of count-classifiers may have been to avoid confusion or ambiguity that could have arisen from counting items using only mass-classifiers—i.e. to clarify when one is referring to a single item and when one is referring to a measure of items.[81]
Historians agree that at some point in history the order of words in this construction shifted, putting the noun at the end rather than beginning, like in the present-day construction Number – Classifier – Noun.[82] According to historical linguist Alain Peyraube, the earliest occurrences of this construction (albeit with mass-classifiers, rather than count-classifiers) appear in the late portion of Old Chinese (500 BCE to 200 BCE). At this time, the Number – Mass-classifier portion of the Noun – Number – Mass-classifier construction was sometimes shifted in front of the noun. Peyraube speculates that this may have occurred because it was gradually reanalyzed as a modifier (like an adjective) for the head noun, as opposed to a simple repetition as it originally was. Since Chinese generally places modifiers before modified, as does English, the shift may have been prompted by this reanalysis. By the early part of the Common Era, the nouns appearing in "classifier position" were beginning to lose their meaning and become true classifiers. Estimates of when classifiers underwent the most development vary: Wang Li claims their period of major development was during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE),[83] whereas Liu Shiru estimates that it was the Northern and Southern dynasties period (420 – 589 CE),[84] and Peyraube chooses the Tang dynasty (618 – 907 CE).[85] Regardless of when they developed, Wang Lianqing claims that they did not become grammatically mandatory until sometime around the 11th century.[86]
Classifier systems in many nearby languages and language groups (such as Vietnamese and the Tai languages) are very similar to the Chinese classifier system in both grammatical structure and the parameters along which some objects are grouped together. Thus, there has been some debate over which language family first developed classifiers and which ones then borrowed them—or whether classifier systems were native to all these languages and developed more through repeated language contact throughout history.[87]
Classifier words
Most modern count-classifiers are derived from words that originally were free-standing nouns in older varieties of Chinese, and have since been grammaticalized to become bound morphemes.[88] In other words, count-classifiers tend to come from words that once had specific meaning but lost it (a process known as semantic bleaching).[89] Many, however, still have related forms that work as nouns all by themselves, such as the classifier Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang) dài for long, ribbon-like objects: the modern word Шаблон:Lang dàizi means "ribbon".[68] In fact, the majority of classifiers can also be used as other parts of speech, such as nouns.[90] Mass-classifiers, on the other hand, are more transparent in meaning than count-classifiers; while the latter have some historical meaning, the former are still full-fledged nouns. For example, Шаблон:Lang (bēi, cup), is both a classifier as in Шаблон:Lang (yì Шаблон:Uline chá, "a Шаблон:Uline of tea") and the word for a cup as in Шаблон:Lang (jiǔbēi, "wine glass").[91]
Шаблон:Quote box It was not always the case that every noun required a count-classifier. In many historical varieties of Chinese, use of classifiers was not mandatory, and classifiers are rare in writings that have survived.[92] Some nouns acquired classifiers earlier than others; some of the first documented uses of classifiers were for inventorying items, both in mercantile business and in storytelling.[93] Thus, the first nouns to have count-classifiers paired with them may have been nouns that represent "culturally valued" items such as horses, scrolls, and intellectuals.[94] The special status of such items is still apparent today: many of the classifiers that can only be paired with one or two nouns, such as Шаблон:Lang pǐ for horses[note 18] and Шаблон:Lang shǒu for songs or poems, are the classifiers for these same "valued" items. Such classifiers make up as much as one-third of the commonly used classifiers today.[19]
Шаблон:AnchorClassifiers did not gain official recognition as a lexical category (part of speech) until the 20th century. The earliest modern text to discuss classifiers and their use was Ma Jianzhong's 1898 Ma's Basic Principles for Writing Clearly (Шаблон:Lang).[95] From then until the 1940s, linguists such as Ma, Wang Li, and Li Jinxi treated classifiers as just a type of noun that "expresses a quantity".[83] Lü Shuxiang was the first to treat them as a separate category, calling them "unit words" (Шаблон:Lang dānwèicí) in his 1940s Outline of Chinese Grammar (Шаблон:Lang) and finally "measure words" (Шаблон:Lang liàngcí) in Grammar Studies (Шаблон:Lang). He made this separation based on the fact that classifiers were semantically bleached, and that they can be used directly with a number, whereas true nouns need to have a measure word added before they can be used with a number.[96] After this time, other names were also proposed for classifiers: Gao Mingkai called them "noun helper words" (Шаблон:Lang zhùmíngcí), Lu Wangdao "counting markers" (Шаблон:Lang jìbiāo), and Japanese linguist Miyawaki Kennosuke called them "accompanying words" (Шаблон:Lang péibàncí).[97] In the Шаблон:Ill adopted by the People's Republic of China in 1954, Lü's "measure words" (Шаблон:Lang liàngcí) was adopted as the official name for classifiers in China.[98] This remains the most common term in use today.[12]
General classifiers
Historically, Шаблон:Lang gè was not always the general classifier. Some believe it was originally a noun referring to bamboo stalks, and gradually expanded in use to become a classifier for many things with "vertical, individual, [or] upright qualit[ies]",[99] eventually becoming a general classifier because it was used so frequently with common nouns.[100] The classifier gè is actually associated with three different homophonous characters: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang (used today as the traditional-character equivalent of Шаблон:Lang), and Шаблон:Lang. Historical linguist Lianqing Wang has argued that these characters actually originated from different words, and that only Шаблон:Lang had the original meaning of "bamboo stalk".[101] Шаблон:Lang, he claims, was used as a general classifier early on, and may have been derived from the orthographically similar Шаблон:Lang jiè, one of the earliest general classifiers.[102] Шаблон:Lang later merged with Шаблон:Lang because they were similar in pronunciation and meaning (both used as general classifiers).[101] Likewise, he claims that Шаблон:Lang was also a separate word (with a meaning having to do with "partiality" or "being a single part"), and merged with Шаблон:Lang for the same reasons as Шаблон:Lang did; he also argues that Шаблон:Lang was "created", as early as the Han dynasty, to supersede Шаблон:Lang.[103]
Nor was Шаблон:Lang the only general classifier in the history of Chinese. The aforementioned Шаблон:Lang jiè was being used as a general classifier before the Qin dynasty (221 BCE); it was originally a noun referring to individual items out of a string of connected shells or clothes, and eventually came to be used as a classifier for "individual" objects (as opposed to pairs or groups of objects) before becoming a general classifier.[104] Another general classifier was Шаблон:Lang méi, which originally referred to small twigs. Since twigs were used for counting items, Шаблон:Lang became a counter word: any items, including people, could be counted as "one Шаблон:Lang, two Шаблон:Lang", etc. Шаблон:Lang was the most common classifier in use during the Northern and Southern dynasties period (420–589 CE),[105] but today is no longer a general classifier, and is only used rarely, as a specialized classifier for items such as pins and badges.[106] Kathleen Ahrens has claimed that Шаблон:Lang (zhī in Mandarin and jia in Taiwanese), the classifier for animals in Mandarin, is another general classifier in Taiwanese and may be becoming one in the Mandarin spoken in Taiwan.[107]
Variety
Northern dialects tend to have fewer classifiers than southern ones. 個 ge is the only classifier found in the Dungan language. All nouns could have just one classifier in some dialects, such as Shanghainese (Wu), the Mandarin dialect of Shanxi, and Shandong dialects. Some dialects such as Northern Min, certain Xiang dialects, Hakka dialects, and some Yue dialects use 隻 for the noun referring to people, rather than 個.[108]
See also
- List of Chinese classifiers
- Chinese grammar
- Collective noun
- Classifiers in other languages:
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite conference
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite journal
External links
- List of Common Nominal Measure Words on chinesenotes.com
- Units of Weights and Measures on chinesenotes.com
- How to Use Chinese Measure Words on 3000 Hanzi
Шаблон:Featured article Шаблон:Chinese language
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- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ The examples are adapted from those given in Шаблон:Harvtxt, Шаблон:Harvtxt, and Шаблон:Harvtxt.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb. Also see the usage in Шаблон:Harvtxt and most introductory Chinese textbooks.
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 18,0 18,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 19,0 19,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 21,0 21,1 Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 31,0 31,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 51,0 51,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 54,0 54,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 66,0 66,1 Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 68,0 68,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
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- ↑ 71,0 71,1 Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 74,0 74,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 78,0 78,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 83,0 83,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb; Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 101,0 101,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
