Английская Википедия:Chinese grammar
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Hatnote
[Шаблон:Zh],
meaning "Chinese grammar", written vertically in simplified (left) and traditional (right) forms
The grammar of Standard Chinese shares many features with other varieties of Chinese. The language almost entirely lacks inflection; words typically have only one grammatical form. Categories such as number (singular or plural) and verb tense are often not expressed by grammatical means, but there are several particles that serve to express verbal aspect and, to some extent, mood.
The basic word order is subject–verb–object (SVO), as in English. Otherwise, Chinese is chiefly a head-final language, meaning that modifiers precede the words that they modify. In a noun phrase, for example, the head noun comes last, and all modifiers, including relative clauses, come in front of it. This phenomenon, however, is more typically found in subject–object–verb languages, such as Turkish and Japanese.
Chinese frequently uses serial verb constructions, which involve two or more verbs or verb phrases in sequence. Chinese prepositions behave similarly to serialized verbs in some respects,Шаблон:Efn and they are often referred to as coverbs. There are also location markers, which are placed after nouns and are thus often called postpositions; they are often used in combination with coverbs. Predicate adjectives are normally used without a copular verb ("to be") and so can be regarded as a type of verb.
As in many other East Asian languages, classifiers (or measure words) are required when numerals (and sometimes other words, such as demonstratives) are used with nouns. There are many different classifiers in the language, and each countable noun generally has a particular classifier associated with it. Informally, however, it is often acceptable to use the general classifier Шаблон:Zhp in place of other specific classifiers.
Word formation
In Chinese, the difference between words and Chinese characters is often not clearШаблон:Efn, this is one of the reasons the Chinese script does not use spaces to separate words. A string of characters can be translated as a single English word, but these characters have some kind of independence. For example, Шаблон:Zhp, meaning 'to dance', can be used as a single intransitive verb, or may be regarded as comprising two single lexical words. However, it does in fact function as a compound of the verb Шаблон:Zhp and the object Шаблон:Zhp.[1] Additionally, the present progressive aspect marker Шаблон:Zhp can be inserted between these two parts to form Шаблон:Zhp.
Chinese morphemes (the smallest units of meaning) are mostly monosyllabic. In most cases, morphemes are represented by single characters. However, two or more monosyllabic morphemes can be translated as a single English word. These monosyllabic morphemes can be either free or bound – that is, in particular usage, they may or may not be able to stand independently. Most two-syllable compound nouns often have the head on the right (e.g. Шаблон:Zhi means "cake"), while in compound verbs often have the head on the left (e.g. Шаблон:Zhi means "debate") .Шаблон:Sfnp
Some Chinese morphemes are polysyllabic, for example, the loanwords Шаблон:Zhp is the compound of Шаблон:Zhp and Шаблон:Zhp, but this compound is actually simply a transliteration of "sofa". Many native disyllabic morphemes, such as Шаблон:Zhp have consonant alliteration, although others such as Шаблон:Zhp do not.
Many monosyllabic words have alternative disyllabic forms with virtually the same meaning, such as Шаблон:Zhp for Шаблон:Zhp. Many disyllabic nouns are produced by adding the suffix Шаблон:Zhp to a monosyllabic word or morpheme. There is a strong tendency for monosyllables to be avoided in certain positions; for example, a disyllabic verb will not normally be followed by a monosyllabic object. This may be connected with the preferred metrical structure of the language.
Reduplication
Reduplication (repeated syllable or word) is a common feature in Chinese:
- Family members: Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "mother"); Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "younger brother")
- Adjectives or adverb: to emphasize the state described by the adjective/adverb,[2] or as childish expression.
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh "red"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "red");
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh "very happily"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "happy, happiness");
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "ice-cool" ), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "ice-cool");
- Other adjectives have ABB reduplication structure:
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, literally" good smell spray out", means "smell very good"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "to smell good, smell") and Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "spray");
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "shining, bright and clear"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "bright") and Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "shiny like a star");
- Verbs: to mark the delimitative aspect ("to do something for a little bit") or for general emphasis – see the Шаблон:Section link section:
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh "write homework / write homework for a while"), from the verb Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh "write") and the noun Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh "homework")
- single morphemes:
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "star"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "star");
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "often"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "constant");
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "puppy/doggy"), from Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "dog")
- Chinese classifiers, to produce a phrase meaning "every" or "many":
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "You all look smart", from Crystal Boys), where ordinarily Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh) is the general classifier. Literally, the phrase Шаблон:Zh means "every", and the character Шаблон:Zh means "all".
- Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "many green hills"), where ordinarily Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh) is a proper classifier for Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "hill").
Prefixes
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "-able"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "reliable"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "respectable"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "anti-"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p [Шаблон:Zh] — "anti-terror"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p [Шаблон:Zh] — "anti-clerical"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p [Шаблон:Zh] — "anti-fascist"
Suffixes
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — used to form verbs from nouns or adjectives
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p [Шаблон:Zh] — "internationalize", form Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p ("internationality")
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p [Шаблон:Zh] — "worsen", form Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p ("bad")
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "attribute"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "safety"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "effectiveness"
Intrafixes
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "can" and Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "cannot"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "can understand"
- Шаблон:Ruby-zh-p — "cannot understand"
Sentence structure
Chinese, like English, is classified as an SVO (subject–verb–object) language. Transitive verbs precede their objects in typical simple clauses, while the subject precedes the verb. For example:Шаблон:Sfnp
Chinese can also be considered a topic-prominent language:Шаблон:Sfnp there is a strong preference for sentences that begin with the topic, usually "given" or "old" information; and end with the comment, or "new" information. Certain modifications of the basic subject–verb–object order are permissible and may serve to achieve topic-prominence. In particular, a direct or indirect object may be moved to the start of the clause to create topicalization. It is also possible for an object to be moved to a position in front of the verb for emphasis.Шаблон:Sfnp
Another type of sentence is what has been called an ergative structure,Шаблон:Sfnp where the apparent subject of the verb can move to object position; the empty subject position is then often occupied by an expression of location. Compare locative inversion in English. This structure is typical of the verb Шаблон:Zhi (Шаблон:Zhi, "there is/are"; in other contexts the same verb means "have"), but it can also be used with many other verbs, generally denoting position, appearance or disappearance. An example:
Chinese is also to some degree a pro-drop or null-subject language, meaning that the subject can be omitted from a clause if it can be inferred from the context.Шаблон:Sfnp In the following example, the subject of the verbs for "hike" and "camp" is left to be inferred—it may be "we", "I", "you", "she", etc.
In the next example the subject is omitted and the object is topicalized by being moved into subject position, to form a passive-type sentence. For passive sentences with a marker such as Шаблон:Zh, see the passive section.
Adverbs and adverbial phrases that modify the verb typically come after the subject but before the verb, although other positions are sometimes possible; see Adverbs and adverbials. For constructions that involve more than one verb or verb phrase in sequence, see Serial verb constructions. For sentences consisting of more than one clause, see Conjunctions.
Objects
Some verbs can take both an indirect object and a direct object. Indirect normally precedes direct, as in English:
With many verbs, however, the indirect object may alternatively be preceded by prepositional gěi (Шаблон:Zh); in that case it may either precede or follow the direct object. (Compare the similar use of to or for in English.)
To emphasize the direct object, it can be combined with the accusative marker bǎ (Шаблон:Zh, literally "hold") to form a "bǎ + direct object" phrase.Шаблон:Sfnp This phrase is placed before the verb. For example:
Other markers can be used in a similar way as bǎ, such as the formal jiāng (Шаблон:Zh, literally "lead") :
and colloquial ná (Шаблон:Zh, literally "get")
To explain this kind of usage, some linguists assumed some verbs can take two direct objects called "inner" and "outer" object separably.Шаблон:SfnpTypically, the outer object will be placed at the start of the sentence (which is the topic) or introduced via the bǎ phrase. For example:
Noun phrases
The head noun of a noun phrase comes at the end of the phrase; this means that everything that modifies the noun comes before it. This includes attributive adjectives, determiners, quantifiers, possessives, and relative clauses.
Chinese does not have articles as such; a noun may stand alone to represent what in English would be expressed as "the ..." or "a[n] ...". However the word yī (Шаблон:Zh, "one"), followed by the appropriate classifier, may be used in some cases where English would have "a" or "an". It is also possible, with many classifiers, to omit the yī and leave the classifier on its own at the start of the noun phrase.
The demonstratives are zhè (Шаблон:Zh, "this"), and nà (Шаблон:Zh, "that"). When used before a noun, these are often followed by an appropriate classifier (for discussion of classifiers, see Classifiers below and the article Chinese classifiers). However this use of classifiers is optional.Шаблон:Sfnp When a noun is preceded by a numeral (or a demonstrative followed by a numeral), the use of a classifier or measure word is in most cases considered mandatory. (This does not apply to nouns that function as measure words themselves; this includes many units of measurement and currency.)
The plural marker xiē (Шаблон:Zh, "some, several"; also used to pluralize demonstratives) is used without a classifier. However jǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "some, several, how many") takes a classifier.Шаблон:Sfnp
For adjectives in noun phrases, see the Adjectives section. For noun phrases with pronouns rather than nouns as the head, see the Pronouns section.
Possessives are formed by adding de (Шаблон:Zh)—the same particle that is used after relative clauses and sometimes after adjectives—after the noun, noun phrase or pronoun that denotes the possessor.
Relative clauses
Chinese relative clauses, like other noun modifiers, precede the noun they modify. Like possessives and some adjectives, they are marked with the final particle de (Шаблон:Zh). A free relative clause is produced if the modified noun following the de is omitted. A relative clause usually comes after any determiner phrase, such as a numeral and classifier. For emphasis, it may come before the determiner phrase.Шаблон:Sfnp
There is usually no relative pronoun in the relative clause. Instead, a gap is left in subject or object position as appropriate. If there are two gaps—the additional gap being created by pro-dropping—ambiguity may arise. For example, chī de (Шаблон:Zh) may mean "[those] who eat" or "[that] which is eaten". When used alone, it usually means "things to eat".
If the relative item is governed by a preposition in the relative clause, then it is denoted by a pronoun, e.g. tì tā (Шаблон:Zh, "for him"), to explain "for whom". Otherwise the whole prepositional phrase is omitted, the preposition then being implicitly understood.
For example sentences, see Relative clause → Mandarin.
Classifiers
Some English words are paired with specific nouns to indicate their counting units. For example, Bottle in "two bottles of wine" and sheet in "three sheets of paper". However, most English nouns can be counted directly without specifying units, while counting of most Chinese nouns must be associated with a specific classifiers, namely Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "measure words"), to represent their counting units.[3] Every Chinese noun can only be associated with a limited number of classifiers. For example
Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "bottle") and Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, "cup") are both proper classifiers of the countable noun Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh), while Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh) and Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh) are unacceptable.
While there are dozens of classifiers, the general classifier gè (Шаблон:Zh) is colloquially (i.e. in informal conversations) acceptable for most nouns. However, there are still some exceptions. For example, Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh) is weird and unacceptable.
Most classifiers originated as independent words in Classical Chinese, so they are generally associated with certain groups of nouns with common properties related to their own classical meaning, for example:[4]
| Classifier
(Original meaning) |
Common Properties | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| tiáo (Шаблон:Zh, "twig") | long or thin
(twigs are long and thin) |
yī-tiáo-shéngzi (Шаблон:Zh, "a rope")
liǎng-tiáo-shé (Шаблон:Zh, "two snakes") |
| bǎ (Шаблон:Zh, "hold") | with a handle
(a handle to hold) |
yī-bǎ-dāo (Шаблон:Zh, "a knife")
liǎng-bǎ-sǎn (Шаблон:Zh, "two umbrellas") |
| zhāng (Шаблон:Zh, "draw a bow") | flat or sheet-like
("extended" like a bow) |
yī zhāng zhào-piàn (Шаблон:Zh, "a photograph")
liǎng zhāng máo-pí (Шаблон:Zh, "two furs") |
Therefore, collocation of classifiers and noun sometimes depends on how native speakers realize them. For example, the noun zhuōzi (Шаблон:Zh, "table") is associated with the classifier zhāng (Шаблон:Zh), due to the sheet-like table-top. Additionally, yǐ-zi (Шаблон:Zh, "chair") is associated with bǎ (Шаблон:Zh, "hold"), because a chair can be moved by holding its top like a handle. Further more, due to the invention of folding chair, yǐ-zi (Шаблон:Zh, "chair") is also associated with the classifier zhāng (Шаблон:Zh) to express a folding chair can be "extended" (unfolded).
Classifiers are also used optionally after demonstratives, and in certain other situations. See the Noun phrases section, and the article Chinese classifier.
Numerals
Pronouns
Шаблон:Main The Chinese personal pronouns are wǒ (Шаблон:Zh, "I, me"), nǐ (Шаблон:Zh,Шаблон:Efn "you"), and tā (Шаблон:Zh, "he, him / she, her / it (animals) / it (inanimate objects)". Plurals are formed by adding men (Шаблон:Zh): wǒmen (Шаблон:Zh, "we, us"), nǐmen (Шаблон:Zh, "you"), tāmen (Шаблон:Zh, "they/them"). There is also nín (Шаблон:Zh), a formal, polite word for singular "you", as well as a less common plural form, nínmen (Шаблон:Zh). Some northern dialects have a third-person formal, polite word Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh+Шаблон:Zh, he/him + heart) similar to Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh+Шаблон:Zh, you + heart).[5] The alternative "inclusive" word for "we/us"—zán (Шаблон:Zh) or zá[n]men (Шаблон:Zh), specifically including the listener[6] (like the difference between English let us and let's)—is used colloquially. The third-person pronouns are not often used for inanimates, with demonstratives used instead.
Possessives are formed with de (Шаблон:Zh), such as wǒde (Шаблон:Zh, "my, mine"), wǒmende (Шаблон:Zh, "our[s]"), etc. The de may be omitted in phrases denoting inalienable possession, such as wǒ māma (Шаблон:Zh, "my mom").
The demonstrative pronouns are zhè (Шаблон:Zh, "this", colloquially pronounced zhèi as a shorthand for Шаблон:Zh[7]) and nà (Шаблон:Zh, "that", colloquially pronounced nèi as a shorthand for Шаблон:Zh[8]). They are optionally pluralized by the addition of plural quantifiers xiē (Шаблон:Zh) or qún (Шаблон:Zh). There is a reflexive pronoun zìjǐ (Шаблон:Zh) meaning "oneself, myself, etc.", which can stand alone as an object or a possessive, or may follow a personal pronoun for emphasis. The reciprocal pronoun "each other" can be translated from bǐcǐ (Шаблон:Zh), usually in adverb position. An alternative is hùxiāng (Шаблон:Zh, "mutually").
Adjectives
Шаблон:Main Adjectives can be used attributively, before a noun. The relative marker de (Шаблон:Zh)Шаблон:Efn may be added after the adjective, but this is not always required; "black horse" may be either hēi mǎ (Шаблон:Zh) or hēi de mǎ (Шаблон:Zh). When multiple adjectives are used, the order "quality/size – shape – color" is followed, although this is not necessary when each adjective is made into a separate phrase with the addition of de.Шаблон:Sfnp
Gradable adjectives can be modified by words meaning "very", etc.; such modifying adverbs normally precede the adjective, although some, such as jíle (Шаблон:Zh, "extremely"), come after it.
When adjectives co-occur with classifiers, they normally follow the classifier. However, with most common classifiers, when the number is "one", it is also possible to place adjectives like "big" and "small" before the classifier for emphasis.
Adjectives can also be used predicatively. In this case they behave more like verbs; there is no need for a copular verb in sentences like "he is happy" in Chinese; one may say simply tā gāoxìng (Шаблон:Zh, "he happy"), where the adjective may be interpreted as a verb meaning "is happy". In such sentences it is common for the adjective to be modified by a word meaning "very" or the like; in fact the word hěn (Шаблон:Zh, "very") is often used in such cases with gradable adjectives, even without carrying the meaning of "very".
It is nonetheless possible for a copula to be used in such sentences, to emphasize the adjective. In the phrase tā shì gāoxìng le, (Шаблон:Zh, "he is now truly happy"), shì is the copula meaning "is", and le is the inceptive marker discussed later.Шаблон:Sfnp This is similar to the cleft sentence construction. Sentences can also be formed in which an adjective followed by de (Шаблон:Zh) stands as the complement of the copula.
Adverbs and adverbials
Adverbs and adverbial phrases normally come in a position before the verb, but after the subject of the verb. In sentences with auxiliary verbs, the adverb usually precedes the auxiliary verb as well as the main verb. Some adverbs of time and attitude ("every day", "perhaps", etc.) may be moved to the start of the clause, to modify the clause as a whole. However, some adverbs cannot be moved in this way. These include three words for "often", cháng (Шаблон:Zh), chángcháng (Шаблон:Zh) and jīngcháng (Шаблон:Zh); dōu (Шаблон:Zh, "all"); jiù (Шаблон:Zh, "then"); and yòu (Шаблон:Zh, "again").Шаблон:Sfnp
Adverbs of manner can be formed from adjectives using the clitic de (Шаблон:Zh).Шаблон:Efn It is generally possible to move these adverbs to the start of the clause, although in some cases this may sound awkward, unless there is a qualifier such as hěn (Шаблон:Zh, "very") and a pause after the adverb.
Some verbs take a prepositional phrase following the verb and its direct object. These are generally obligatory constituents, such that the sentence would not make sense if they were omitted. For example:
There are also certain adverbial "stative complements" which follow the verb. The character de (Шаблон:Zh)Шаблон:Efn followed by an adjective functions the same as the phrase "-ly" in English, turning the adjective into an adverb. The second is hǎo le (Шаблон:Zh, "complete"). It is not generally possible for a single verb to be followed by both an object and an adverbial complement of this type, although there are exceptions in cases where the complement expresses duration, frequency or goal.Шаблон:Sfnp To express both, the verb may be repeated in a special kind of serial verb construction; the first instance taking an object, the second taking the complement. Aspect markers can then appear only on the second instance of the verb.
The typical Chinese word order "XVO", where an oblique complement such as a locative prepositional phrase precedes the verb, while a direct object comes after the verb, is very rare cross-linguistically; in fact, it is only in varieties of Chinese that this is attested as the typical ordering.[9]
Locative phrases
Expressions of location in Chinese may include a preposition, placed before the noun; a postposition, placed after the noun; both preposition and postposition; or neither. Chinese prepositions are commonly known as coverbs – see the Coverbs section. The postpositions—which include shàng (Шаблон:Zh, "up, on"), xià (Шаблон:Zh, "down, under"), lǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "in, within"), nèi (Шаблон:Zh, "inside") and wài (Шаблон:Zh, "outside")—may also be called locative particles.Шаблон:Sfnp
In the following examples locative phrases are formed from a noun plus a locative particle:
The most common preposition of location is zài (Шаблон:Zh, "at, on, in"). With certain nouns that inherently denote a specific location, including nearly all place names, a locative phrase can be formed with zài together with the noun:
However other types of nouns still require a locative particle as a postposition in addition to zài:
If a noun is modified so as to denote a specific location, as in "this [object]...", then it may form locative phrases without any locative particle. Some nouns which can be understood to refer to a specific place, like jiā (Шаблон:Zh, home) and xuéxiào (Шаблон:Zh, "school"), may optionally omit the locative particle. Words like shàngmiàn (Шаблон:Zh, "top") can function as specific-location nouns, like in zài shàngmiàn (Шаблон:Zh, "on top"), but can also take the role of locative particle, not necessarily with analogous meaning. The phrase zài bàozhǐ shàngmiàn (Шаблон:Zh), can mean either "in the newspaper" or "on the newspaper".Шаблон:Sfnp
In certain circumstances zài can be omitted from the locative expression. Grammatically, a noun or noun phrase followed by a locative particle is still a noun phrase. For instance, zhuōzi shàng can be regarded as short for zhuōzi shàngmiàn, meaning something like "the table's top". Consequently, the locative expression without zài can be used in places where a noun phrase would be expected – for instance, as a modifier of another noun using de (Шаблон:Zh), or as the object of a different preposition, such as cóng (Шаблон:Zh, "from"). The version with zài, on the other hand, plays an adverbial role. However, zài is usually omitted when the locative expression begins a sentence with the ergative structure, where the expression, though having an adverbial function, can be seen as filling the subject or noun role in the sentence. For examples, see sentence structure section.
The word zài (Шаблон:Zh), like certain other prepositions or coverbs, can also be used as a verb. A locative expression can therefore appear as a predicate without the need for any additional copula. For example, "he is at school" (Шаблон:Zh, literally "he at school").
Comparatives and superlatives
Comparative sentences are commonly expressed simply by inserting the standard of comparison, preceded by bǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "than"). The adjective itself is not modified. The bǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "than") phrase is an adverbial, and has a fixed position before the verb. See also the section on negation.
If there is no standard of comparison—i.e., a than phrase—then the adjective can be marked as comparative by a preceding adverb bǐjiào (Шаблон:Zh), jiào (Шаблон:Zh) or gèng (Шаблон:Zh), all meaning "more". Similarly, superlatives can be expressed using the adverb zuì (Шаблон:Zh, "most"), which precedes a predicate verb or adjective.
Adverbial phrases meaning "like [someone/something]" or "as [someone/something]" can be formed using gēn (Шаблон:Zh), tóng (Шаблон:Zh) or xiàng (Шаблон:Zh) before the noun phrase, and yīyàng (Шаблон:Zh) or nàyàng (Шаблон:Zh) after it.Шаблон:Sfnp
The construction yuè ... yuè ... Шаблон:Zh can be translated into statements of the type "the more ..., the more ...".
Copula
Шаблон:Further The Chinese copular verb is shì (Шаблон:Zh). This is the equivalent of English "to be" and all its forms—"am", "is", "are", "was", "were", etc. However, shì is normally only used when its complement is a noun or noun phrase. As noted above, predicate adjectives function as verbs themselves, as does the locative preposition zài (Шаблон:Zh), so in sentences where the predicate is an adjectival or locative phrase, shì is not required.
For another use of shì, see shì ... [de] construction in the section on cleft sentences. The English existential phrase "there is" ["there are", etc.] is translated using the verb yǒu (Шаблон:Zh), which is otherwise used to denote possession.
Aspects
Chinese does not have grammatical markers of tense. The time at which action is conceived as taking place—past, present, future—can be indicated by expressions of time—"yesterday", "now", etc.—or may simply be inferred from the context. However, Chinese does have markers of aspect, which is a feature of grammar that gives information about the temporal flow of events. There are two aspect markers that are especially commonly used with past events: the perfective-aspect le (Шаблон:Zh) and the experiential guo (Шаблон:Zh). Some authors, however, do not regard guo (or zhe; see below) as markers of aspect.Шаблон:Sfnp Both le and guo immediately follow the verb. There is also a sentence-final particle le, which serves a somewhat different purpose.
The perfective le presents the viewpoint of "an event in its entirety".Шаблон:Sfnp It is sometimes considered to be a past tense marker, although it can also be used with future events, given appropriate context. Some examples of its use:
Using le (Шаблон:Zh) shows this event that has taken place or took place at a particular time.
This format of le (Шаблон:Zh) is usually used in a time-delimited context such as "today" or "last week".
The above may be compared with the following examples with guo, and with the examples with sentence-final le given under Particles.
The experiential guo "ascribes to a subject the property of having experienced the event".Шаблон:Sfnp
This also implies that the speaker no longer is a soldier.
There are also two imperfective aspect markers: zhèngzài (Шаблон:Zh) or zài (Шаблон:Zh), and zhe (Шаблон:Zh), which denote ongoing actions or states. Zhèngzài and zài precede the verb, and are usually used for ongoing actions or dynamic events – they may be translated as "[be] in the process of [-ing]" or "[be] in the middle of [-ing]". Zhe follows the verb, and is used mostly for static situations.
Both markers may occur in the same clause, however. For example, tā zhèngzai dǎ [zhe] diànhuà, "he is in the middle of telephoning someone" (Шаблон:Zh).Шаблон:Sfnp
The delimitative aspect denotes an action that goes on only for some time, "doing something 'a little bit'".Шаблон:Sfnp This can be expressed by reduplication of a monosyllabic verb, like the verb zǒu (Шаблон:Zh "walk") in the following sentence:
An alternative construction is reduplication with insertion of "one" (Шаблон:Zh yī). For example, zǒu yi zǒu (Шаблон:Zh), which might be translated as "walk a little walk". A further possibility is reduplication followed by kàn (Шаблон:Zh "to see"); this emphasizes the "testing" nature of the action. If the verb has an object, kàn follows the object.
Some compound verbs, such as restrictive-resultative and coordinate compounds, can also be reduplicated on the pattern tǎolùn-tǎolùn (Шаблон:Zh), from the verb tǎolùn (Шаблон:Zh), meaning "discuss". Other compounds may be reduplicated, but for general emphasis rather than delimitative aspect. In compounds that are verb–object combinations, like tiào wǔ (Шаблон:Zh, "dance"), a delimitative aspect can be marked by reduplicating the first syllable, creating tiào-tiào wǔ (Шаблон:Zh), which may be followed with kàn (Шаблон:Zh).
Passive
As mentioned above, the fact that a verb is intended to be understood in the passive voice is not always marked in Chinese. However, it may be marked using the passive marker 被 bèi, followed by the agent, though bèi may appear alone, if the agent is not to be specified.Шаблон:Efn Certain causative markers can replace bèi, such as those mentioned in the Other cases section, gěi, jiào and ràng. Of these causative markers, only gěi can appear alone without a specified agent. The construction with a passive marker is normally used only when there is a sense of misfortune or adversity.Шаблон:Sfnp The passive marker and agent occupy the typical adverbial position before the verb. See the Negation section for more. Some examples:
Negation
The most commonly used negating element is bù (Шаблон:Zh), pronounced with second tone when followed by a fourth tone. This can be placed before a verb, preposition or adverb to negate it. For example: "I don't eat chicken" (Шаблон:Zh). For the double-verb negative construction with bù, see Complement of result, below. However, the verb yǒu (Шаблон:Zh)—which can mean either possession, or "there is/are" in existential clauses—is negated using méi (Шаблон:Zh) to produce méiyǒu (Шаблон:Zh).
For negation of a verb intended to denote a completed event, méi or méiyǒu is used instead of bù (Шаблон:Zh), and the aspect marker le (Шаблон:Zh) is then omitted. Also, méi[yǒu] is used to negate verbs that take the aspect marker guo (Шаблон:Zh); in this case the aspect marker is not omitted.Шаблон:Sfnp
In coverb constructions, the negator may come before the coverb (preposition) or before the full verb, the latter being more emphatic. In constructions with a passive marker, the negator precedes that marker; similarly, in comparative constructions, the negator precedes the bǐ phraseNot clear (unless the verb is further qualified by gèng (Шаблон:Zh, "even more"), in which case the negator may follow the gèng to produce the meaning "even less").Шаблон:Sfnp
The negator bié (Шаблон:Zh) precedes the verb in negative commands and negative requests, such as in phrases meaning "don't ...", "please don't ...".
The negator wèi (Шаблон:Zh) means "not yet". Other items used as negating elements in certain compound words include wú (Шаблон:Zh),wù (Шаблон:Zh), miǎn (Шаблон:Zh) and fēi (Шаблон:Zh).
A double negative makes a positive, as in sentences like wǒ bú shì bù xǐhuān tā (Шаблон:Zh, "It's not that I don't like her" ). For this use of shì (Шаблон:Zh), see the Cleft sentences section.
Questions
In wh-questions in Chinese, the question word is not fronted. Instead, it stays in the position in the sentence that would be occupied by the item being asked about. For example, "What did you say?" is phrased as nǐ shuō shé[n]me (Шаблон:Zh, literally "you say what"). The word shénme (Шаблон:Zh, "what" or "which"), remains in the object position after the verb.
Other interrogative words include:
- "Who": shuí/shéi (Шаблон:Zh)
- "What": shénme (Шаблон:Zh); shá (Шаблон:Zh, used informally)
- "Where": nǎr (Шаблон:Zh); nǎlǐ (Шаблон:Zh); héchù (Шаблон:Zh)
- "When": shénme shíhòu (Шаблон:Zh); héshí (Шаблон:Zh)
- "Which": nǎ (Шаблон:Zh)
- When used to mean "which ones", nǎ is used with a classifier and noun, or with xiē (Шаблон:Zh) and noun. The noun may be omitted if understood through context.
- "Why": wèishé[n]me (Шаблон:Zh); gànmá (Шаблон:Zh)
- "How many": duōshǎo (Шаблон:Zh)
- When the number is quite small, jǐ (Шаблон:Zh) is used, followed by a classifier.
- "How": zěnme[yang] (Шаблон:Zh); rúhé (Шаблон:Zh).
Disjunctive questions can be made using the word háishì (Шаблон:Zh) between the options, like English "or". This differs from the word for "or" in statements, which is huòzhě (Шаблон:Zh).
Yes–no questions can be formed using the sentence-final particle ma (Шаблон:Zh), with word order otherwise the same as in a statement. For example, nǐ chī jī ma? (Шаблон:Zh, "Do you eat chicken?").
An alternative is the A-not-A construction, using phrases like chī bu chī (Шаблон:Zh, "eat or not eat").Шаблон:Efn With two-syllable verbs, sometimes only the first syllable is repeated: xǐ-bu-xǐhuān ( Шаблон:Zh, "like or not like"), from xǐhuān (Шаблон:Zh, "like"). It is also possible to use the A-not-A construction with prepositions (coverbs) and phrases headed by them, as with full verbs.
The negator méi (Шаблон:Zh) can be used rather than bù in the A-not-A construction when referring to a completed event, but if it occurs at the end of the sentence—i.e. the repetition is omitted—the full form méiyǒu (Шаблон:Nowrap) must appear.Шаблон:Sfnp
For answering yes–no questions, Chinese has words that may be used like the English "yes" and "no" – duì (Шаблон:Zh) or shì de (Шаблон:Zh) for "yes"; bù (Шаблон:Zh) for "no" – but these are not often used for this purpose; it is more common to repeat the verb or verb phrase (or entire sentence), negating it if applicable.
Imperatives
Second-person imperative sentences are formed in the same way as statements, and like in English, the subject "you" is often omitted.
Orders may be softened by preceding them with an element such as qǐng (Шаблон:Zh, "to ask"), in this use equivalent to English "please". See Particles for more. The sentence-final particle ba (Шаблон:Zh) can be used to form first-person imperatives, equivalent to "let's...".
Serial verb constructions
Chinese makes frequent use of serial verb constructions, or verb stacking, where two or more verbs or verb phrases are concatenated together. This frequently involves either verbal complements appearing after the main verb, or coverb phrases appearing before the main verb, but other variations of the construction occur as well.
Auxiliaries
A main verb may be preceded by an auxiliary verb, as in English. Chinese auxiliaries include néng and nénggòu (Шаблон:Zh and Шаблон:Zh, "can"); huì (Шаблон:Zh, "know how to"); kéyǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "may"); gǎn (Шаблон:Zh, "dare"); kěn (Шаблон:Zh, "be willing to"); yīnggāi (Шаблон:Zh, "should"); bìxū (Шаблон:Zh, "must"); etc. The auxiliary normally follows an adverb, if present. In shortened sentences an auxiliary may be used without a main verb, analogously to English sentences such as "I can."
Verbal complements
The active verb of a sentence may be suffixed with a second verb, which usually indicates either the result of the first action, or the direction in which it took the subject. When such information is applicable, it is generally considered mandatory. The phenomenon is sometimes called double verbs.
Complement of result
A complement of result, or resultative complement (Шаблон:Zh) is a verbal suffix which indicates the outcome, or possible outcome, of the action indicated by the main verb. In the following examples, the main verb is tīng (Шаблон:Zh "to listen"), and the complement of result is dǒng (Шаблон:Zh, "to understand/to know").
Since they indicate an absolute result, such double verbs necessarily represent a completed action, and are thus negated using méi (Шаблон:Zh):
The morpheme de (Шаблон:Zh) is placed between the double verbs to indicate possibility or ability. This is not possible with "restrictive" resultative compounds such as jiéshěng (Шаблон:Zh, literally "reduce-save", meaning "to save, economize").Шаблон:Sfnp
This is equivalent in meaning to néng tīng dǒng (Шаблон:Zh), using the auxiliary néng (Шаблон:Zh), equivalent to "may" or "can".Шаблон:Efn
To negate the above construction, de (Шаблон:Zh) is replaced by bù (Шаблон:Zh):
With some verbs, the addition of bù and a particular complement of result is the standard method of negation. In many cases the complement is liǎo, represented by the same character as the perfective or modal particle le (Шаблон:Zh). This verb means "to finish", but when used as a complement for negation purposes it may merely indicate inability. For example: shòu bù liǎo (Шаблон:Zh, "to be unable to tolerate").
The complement of result is a highly productive and frequently used construction. Sometimes it develops into idiomatic phrases, as in è sǐ le (Шаблон:Zh, literally "hungry-until-die already", meaning "to be starving") and qì sǐ le (Шаблон:Zh, literally "mad-until-die already", meaning "to be extremely angry"). The phrases for "hatred" (Шаблон:Zh), "excuse me" (Шаблон:Zh), and "too expensive to buy" (Шаблон:Zh) all use the character qǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "to rise up") as a complement of result, but their meanings are not obviously related to that meaning. This is partially the result of metaphorical construction, where kànbùqǐ (Шаблон:Zh) literally means "to be unable to look up to"; and duìbùqǐ (Шаблон:Zh) means "to be unable to face someone".
Some more examples of resultative complements, used in complete sentences:
Double-verb construction where the second verb, "break", is a suffix to the first, and indicates what happens to the object as a result of the action.
Another double-verb where the second verb, "understand", suffixes the first and clarifies the possibility and success of the relevant action.
Complement of direction
A complement of direction, or directional complement (Шаблон:Zh) indicates the direction of an action involving movement. The simplest directional complements are qù (Шаблон:Zh, "to go") and lái (Шаблон:Zh, "to come"), which may be added after a verb to indicate movement away from or towards the speaker, respectively. These may form compounds with other verbs that further specify the direction, such as shàng qù (Шаблон:Zh, "to go up"), gùo lái (Шаблон:Zh, "to come over"), which may then be added to another verb, such as zǒu (Шаблон:Zh, "to walk"), as in zǒu gùo qù (Шаблон:Zh, "to walk over"). Another example, in a whole sentence:
- The directional suffixes indicate "up" and "towards".
If the preceding verb has an object, the object may be placed either before or after the directional complement(s), or even between two directional complements, provided the second of these is not qù (Шаблон:Zh).Шаблон:Sfnp
The structure with inserted de or bù is not normally used with this type of double verb. There are exceptions, such as "to be unable to get out of bed" (Шаблон:Zh or Шаблон:Zh).
Coverbs
Chinese has a class of words, called coverbs, which in some respects resemble both verbs and prepositions. They appear with a following object (or complement), and generally denote relationships that would be expressed by prepositions (or postpositions) in other languages. However, they are often considered to be lexically verbs, and some of them can also function as full verbs. When a coverb phrase appears in a sentence together with a main verb phrase, the result is essentially a type of serial verb construction. The coverb phrase, being an adverbial, precedes the main verb in most cases. For instance:
Here the main verb is zhǎo (Шаблон:Zh, "find"), and bāng (Шаблон:Zh) is a coverb. Here bāng corresponds to the English preposition "for", even though in other contexts it might be used as a full verb meaning "help".
Here there are three coverbs: zuò (Шаблон:Zh "by"), cóng (Шаблон:Zh, "from"), and dào (Шаблон:Zh, "to"). The words zuò and dào can also be verbs, meaning "sit" and "arrive [at]" respectively. However, cóng is not normally used as a full verb.
A very common coverb that can also be used as a main verb is zài (Шаблон:Zh), as described in the Locative phrases section. Another example is gěi (Шаблон:Zh), which as a verb means "give". As a preposition, gěi may mean "for", or "to" when marking an indirect object or in certain other expressions.
Because coverbs essentially function as prepositions, they can also be referred to simply as prepositions. In Chinese they are called jiè cí (Шаблон:Zh), a term which generally corresponds to "preposition", or more generally, "adposition". The situation is complicated somewhat by the fact that location markers—which also have meanings similar to those of certain English prepositions—are often called "postpositions".
Coverbs normally cannot take aspect markers, although some of them form fixed compounds together with such markers, such as gēnzhe (Шаблон:Zh), ànzhe (Шаблон:Zh, "according to"), yánzhe (Шаблон:Zh, "along"), and wèile (Шаблон:Zh "for").Шаблон:Sfnp
Other cases
Serial verb constructions can also consist of two consecutive verb phrases with parallel meaning, such as hē kāfēi kàn bào, "drink coffee and read the paper" (Шаблон:Zh). Each verb may independently be negated or given the le aspect marker.Шаблон:Sfnp If both verbs would have the same object, it is omitted the second time.
Consecutive verb phrases may also be used to indicate consecutive events. Use of the le aspect marker with the first verb may imply that this is the main verb of the sentence, the second verb phrase merely indicating the purpose. Use of this le with the second verb changes this emphasis, and may require a sentence-final le particle in addition. On the other hand, the progressive aspect marker zài (Шаблон:Zh) may be applied to the first verb, but not normally the second alone. The word qù (Шаблон:Zh, "go") or lái (Шаблон:Zh, "come") may be inserted between the two verb phrases, meaning "in order to".
For constructions with consecutive verb phrases containing the same verb, see under Adverbs. For immediate repetition of a verb, see Reduplication and Aspects.
Another case is the causative or pivotal construction.Шаблон:Sfnp Here the object of one verb also serves as the subject of the following verb. The first verb may be something like gěi (Шаблон:Zh, "allow", or "give" in other contexts), ràng (Шаблон:Zh, "let"), jiào (Шаблон:Zh, "order" or "call") or shǐ (Шаблон:Zh, "make, compel"), qǐng (Шаблон:Zh, "invite"), or lìng (Шаблон:Zh, "command"). Some of these cannot take an aspect marker such as le when used in this construction, like lìng, ràng, shǐ. Sentences of this type often parallel the equivalent English pattern, except that English may insert the infinitive marker "to". In the following example the construction is used twice:
Particles
Chinese has a number of sentence-final particles – these are weak syllables, spoken with neutral tone, and placed at the end of the sentence to which they refer. They are often called modal particles or yǔqì zhùcí (Шаблон:Zh), as they serve chiefly to express grammatical mood, or how the sentence relates to reality and/or intent. They include:Шаблон:Sfnp
- ma (Шаблон:Zh), which changes a statement into a yes–no question
- ne (Шаблон:Zh), which expresses surprise, produces a question "with expectation", or expresses a currently ongoing event when answering a question
- ba (Шаблон:Zh), which serves as a tag question, e.g. "don't you think so?"; produces a suggestion e.g. "let's..."; or lessens certainty of a decision.
- a (Шаблон:Zh),Шаблон:Efn which reduces forcefulness, particularly of an order or question. It can also be used to add positive connotation to certain phrases or inject uncertainty when responding to a question.
- ou (Шаблон:Zh), which signals a friendly warning
- zhe (Шаблон:Zh), which marks the inchoative aspect, or need for change of state, in imperative sentences. Compare the imperfective aspect marker zhe in the section above)
- le (Шаблон:Zh), which marks a "currently relevant state". This precedes any other sentence-final particles, and can combine with a (Шаблон:Zh) to produce la (Шаблон:Zh); and with ou (Шаблон:Zh) to produce lou (Шаблон:Zh).
This sentence-final le (Шаблон:Zh) should be distinguished from the verb suffix le (Шаблон:Zh) discussed in the Aspects section. Whereas the sentence-final particle is sometimes described as an inceptive or as a marker of perfect aspect, the verb suffix is described as a marker of perfective aspect.[10] Some examples of its use:
The position of le in this example emphasizes his present status as a soldier, rather than the event of becoming. Compare with the post-verbal le example given in the Aspects section, wǒ dāng le bīng. However, when answering a question, the ending should be 呢 instead of 了. For example, to answer a question like "你现在做什么工作？" (What's your job now?), instead of using le, a more appropriate answer should be
Compared with the post-verbal le and guo examples, this places the focus on the number three, and does not specify whether he is going to continue watching more games.
The two uses of le may in fact be traced back to two entirely different words.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp The fact that they are now written the same way in Mandarin can cause ambiguity, particularly when the verb is not followed by an object. Consider the following sentence:
This le might be interpreted as either the suffixal perfective marker or the sentence-final perfect marker. In the former case it might mean "mother has come", as in she has just arrived at the door, while in the latter it might mean "mother is coming!", and the speaker wants to inform others of this fact. It is even possible for the two kinds of le to co-occur:Шаблон:Sfnp
Without the first le, the sentence could again mean "he has eaten", or it could mean "he wants to eat now". Without the final le the sentence would be ungrammatical without appropriate context, as perfective le cannot appear in a semantically unbounded sentence.
Plural
Chinese nouns and other parts of speech are not generally marked for number, meaning that plural forms are mostly the same as the singular. However, there is a plural marker men (Шаблон:Zh), which has limited usage. It is used with personal pronouns, as in wǒmen (Шаблон:Zh, "we" or "us"), derived from wǒ (Шаблон:Zh, "I, me"). It can be used with nouns representing humans, most commonly those with two syllables, like in péngyoumen (Шаблон:Zh, "friends"), from péngyou (Шаблон:Zh, "friend"). Its use in such cases is optional.Шаблон:Sfnp It is never used when the noun has indefinite reference, or when it is qualified by a numeral.Шаблон:Sfnp
The demonstrative pronouns zhè (Шаблон:Zh, "this"), and nà (Шаблон:Zh, "that") may be optionally pluralized by the addition of xiē (Шаблон:Zh，"few"), making zhèxiē (Шаблон:Zh, "these") and nàxiē (Шаблон:Zh, "those").
Cleft sentences
There is a construction in Chinese known as the shì ... [de] construction, which produces what may be called cleft sentences.Шаблон:Sfnp The copula shì (Шаблон:Zh) is placed before the element of the sentence which is to be emphasized, and the optional possessive particle de (Шаблон:Zh) is placed at the end of the sentence if the sentence ends in a verb, or after the last verb of the sentence if the sentence ends with a complement of the verb. For example:
Example with a sentence that ends with a complement:
If an object following the verb is to be emphasized in this construction, the shì precedes the object, and the de comes after the verb and before the shì.
Sentences with similar meaning can be produced using relative clauses. These may be called pseudo-cleft sentences.
Conjunctions
Chinese has various conjunctions (Шаблон:Zh) such as hé (Шаблон:Zh, "and"), dànshì (Шаблон:Zh, "but"), huòzhě (Шаблон:Zh, "or"), etc. However Chinese quite often uses no conjunction where English would have "and".Шаблон:Sfnp
Two or more nouns may be joined by the conjunctions hé (Шаблон:Zh, "and") or huò (Шаблон:Zh "or"); for example dāo hé chā (Шаблон:Zh, "knife and fork"), gǒu huò māo (Шаблон:Zh, "dog or cat").
Certain adverbs are often used as correlative conjunctions, where correlating words appear in each of the linked clauses, such as búdàn ... érqiě (Шаблон:Zh), suīrán ... háishì (Шаблон:Zh), yīnwèi ... suǒyǐ (Шаблон:Zh). Such connectors may appear at the start of a clause or before the verb phrase.Шаблон:Sfnp
Similarly, words like jìrán (Шаблон:Zh, "since/in response to"), rúguǒ (Шаблон:Zh) or jiǎrú (Шаблон:Zh) "if", zhǐyào (Шаблон:Zh "provided that") correlate with an adverb jiù (Шаблон:Zh, "then") or yě (Шаблон:Zh, "also") in the main clause, to form conditional sentences.
In some cases, the same word may be repeated when connecting items; these include yòu ... yòu ... (Шаблон:Zh, "both ... and ..."), yībiān ... yībiān ... (Шаблон:Zh, "... while ..."), and yuè ... yuè ... (Шаблон:Zh, "the more ..., the more ...").
Conjunctions of time such as "when" may be translated with a construction that corresponds to something like "at the time (+relative clause)", where as usual, the Chinese relative clause comes before the noun ("time" in this case). For example:Шаблон:Sfnp
Variants include dāng ... yǐqián (Шаблон:Zh "before ...") and dāng ... yǐhòu (Шаблон:Zh, "after ..."), which do not use the relative marker de. In all of these cases, the initial dāng may be replaced by zài (Шаблон:Zh), or may be omitted. There are also similar constructions for conditionals: rúguǒ /jiǎrú/zhǐyào ... dehuà (Шаблон:Zh, "if ... then"), where huà (Шаблон:Zh) literally means "narrative, story".
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Further reading
External links
Шаблон:Chinese language Шаблон:Language grammars
- ↑ However, like 'dance', Шаблон:Lang can also be used as a verb: for example, Шаблон:Zhi
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ However, classifiers are not commonly used in Classical Chinese, for example Шаблон:Zh (Шаблон:Zh, literally "three-person-walk", means "three persons walk together", from Analects).
- ↑ The following original meaning in Classical Chinese are referenced from Shuowen Jiezi, an old dictionary written during the Eastern Han dynasty.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvtxt, quoted in Шаблон:Harvtxt, p. 80.
