Английская Википедия:Choctaw language

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox language Шаблон:Infobox ethnonym The Choctaw language (Choctaw: Шаблон:Lang^[1]), spoken by the Choctaw, an Indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands, USA, is a member of the Muskogean language family. Chickasaw is a separate but closely related language to Choctaw.^[2]

The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma published the New Choctaw dictionary in 2016.

Orthography

Шаблон:Multiple image

IPA	Linguistic	CBTCШаблон:Ref	Mississippi	Traditional	Byington/Swanton
Vowels
a	a
i	i
o	o
Long
aː	aa	á	á	a
aː	aa	á	ā	a
iː	ii	í	í	e, i
iː	ii	í	ī	e, i
oː	oo	ó	ó	o
oː	oo	ó	ō	o
Nasal
ãː	a̱		ą	a̱	aⁿ
+C	a̱		ą	am, an
ĩː	i̱		į	i̱	iⁿ
+C	i̱		į	im, in
õː	o̱		ǫ	o̱	oⁿ
+C	o̱		ǫ	om, on, um, un
Lax
ə	a			ʋШаблон:Ref	ạ
ɪ	i
ʊ	o			u
Consonants
b	b
tʃ	ch		č	ch
f	f
h	h
k	k
l	l
ɬ	lh		ł	hl, lh Шаблон:Ref	ł, lh Шаблон:Ref
m	m
n	n
p	p
s	s
ʃ	sh		š	sh
t	t
w	w
j	y
ʔ	Шаблон:Saltillo	∅

The written Choctaw language is based upon the English version of the Roman alphabet and was developed in conjunction with the "civilization program" of the United States, a program to westernize and forcefully assimilate Indigenous Americans, particularly those adhering to what were to become the Five Civilized Tribes (of which the Choctaw are a part) into Anglo-American Culture and Sympathies during the early 19th century. Although there are other variations of the Choctaw alphabet, the three most commonly seen are the Byington (Traditional), Byington/Swanton (Linguistic), and Modern (Mississippi Choctaw).

Many publications by linguists about the Choctaw language use a slight variant of the "modern (Mississippi Choctaw)" orthography listed here, where long vowels are written as doubled. In the "linguistic" version, the acute accent shows the position of the pitch accent, rather than the length of the vowel.

The discussion of Choctaw grammar below uses the linguistic variant of the orthography.

Шаблон:NoteChoctaw Bible Translation Committee
Шаблон:NoteSubstituted with 'v' according to typesetting or encoding constraints.
Шаблон:NoteThe former is used before a vowel; the latter, before a consonant. The intervocalic use of Шаблон:Angbr conflated the common consonant cluster /hl/ with /ɬ/.
Шаблон:NoteDictionary editors John Swanton and Henry Halbert systematically replaced all instances of Шаблон:Angbr with Шаблон:Angbr, regardless whether Шаблон:Angbr stood for /ɬ/ or /hl/. Despite the editors' systematic replacement of all Шаблон:Angbr with Шаблон:Angbr, the digraph Шаблон:Angbr was allowed to stand.

Dialects

There are three dialects of Choctaw (Mithun 1999):

"Native" Choctaw on the Choctaw Nation in southeastern Oklahoma
Mississippi Choctaw of Oklahoma on Chickasaw Nation of south-central Oklahoma (near Durwood)
Choctaw of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians near Philadelphia, Mississippi

Other speakers live near Tallahassee, Florida, and with the Koasati in Louisiana, and also a few speakers live in Texas and California.

Phonology

More information on suffixes is in the Morphology section.

Consonants

	Labial	Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
	Labial	central	lateral	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	Шаблон:IPA link	Шаблон:IPA link
Stop Шаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link	Шаблон:IPA link			Шаблон:IPA link	Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:Ref
Affricate				ch [[[:Шаблон:IPA link]]]
Fricative	Шаблон:IPA link	Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:Ref	Шаблон:IPA link	sh [[[:Шаблон:IPA link]]]Шаблон:Ref		Шаблон:IPA link
Approximant			Шаблон:IPA link	y [[[:Шаблон:IPA link]]]	Шаблон:IPA link

Шаблон:Note The only voiced stop is Шаблон:IPA. The voiceless stops Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA may become partially voiced between vowels, especially Шаблон:IPA and for male speakers. Also, the voiceless stops are slightly aspirated at the onset of words^[3] and before stressed syllables, behaving like English voiceless plosives.
Шаблон:Note Controversially, some analyses suggest that all nouns end in an underlying consonant phoneme.^[4] Nouns apparently ending in a vowel actually have a glottal stop Шаблон:IPA or a glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA as the final consonant. Such consonants become realized when suffixes are attached.
Шаблон:Note The distinction between phonemes Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is neutralized at the end of words.

Free variation

There is free variation of some consonants in Choctaw with some speakers:^[5]

/ɬ/, the voiceless lateral fricative, is pronounced as a voiceless dental fricative [θ]:^[5] Шаблон:IPA→Шаблон:IPA.
The voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ is pronounced as a voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ]:^[5] Шаблон:IPA→Шаблон:IPA.

Phonological processes of consonants

In Choctaw Шаблон:IPA, the voiceless velar plosive, is often pronounced as Шаблон:IPA, a voiced velar fricative, between vowels.^[3]

Шаблон:IPA→Шаблон:IPA/V_V

imofi-aki-lih→imofiy-əɣə̃꞉-lih

The voiceless glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA is often pronounced like a voiceless palatal fricative Шаблон:IPA when it precedes the voiceless palato-alveolar affricate Шаблон:IPA.^[3]

Шаблон:IPA→Шаблон:IPA/_Шаблон:IPA

katihchish→katiçtʃiʃ

Vowels

	Short Шаблон:Ref		Long	Nasal Шаблон:Ref
	tense	lax	Long	Nasal Шаблон:Ref
Close front	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
Close-mid back	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
Open central	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA

Шаблон:Note Lax vowels occur more often in closed syllables.^[6] In traditional orthography, ʋ usually indicates Шаблон:IPA and u usually indicates Шаблон:IPA. Exceptions include pokoli (traditional) for Шаблон:IPA, imalakusi for Шаблон:IPA. The traditional orthography does not distinguish lax and tense front vowels; instead it indicates Шаблон:IPA with e.
Шаблон:Note Nasal vowels are intrinsically long.

Pitch

In Choctaw, very few words are distinguished only by pitch accent.^[6] Nouns in Choctaw have pitch realization at the penultimate syllable or the ultimate syllable.^[6] Verbs in Choctaw will have pitch realization at morphemes indicating tense, but sometimes, pitch directly precedes the tense morpheme.^[6]

Syllable structure

Syllables of Choctaw^[7]
Syllable	Type	Example
V	Light	a.bih
CV	Light	no.sih
VV	Heavy	ii.chih
CVV	Heavy	pii.ni'
V	Heavy	a.chi'
CV	Heavy	ta.chi'
VC	Heavy	ish.ki'
CVC	Heavy	ha.bish.ko'
VVC	Super Heavy	óok.cha-cha
CVVC	Super Heavy	náaf.ka
VC	Super Heavy	at
CVC	Super Heavy	ok.hish
*(C)VCC	Super Heavy	tablit.tapt
*CCV	Super Heavy	ski.tii.nnih

As is in the chart above, there are three syllable structure types in Choctaw: light, heavy, and super heavy. Possible syllables in Choctaw must contain at least one vowel of any quality.^[8]
Syllables cannot end with a consonant clusters CC. However, there is an exception with the structure *(C)VCC if a word in Choctaw ends with the suffix /-t/.^[8]
Syllables do not begin with consonant clusters CC, but there is an exception in an initial /i-/ deletion, which results in a syllable *CCV .^[8]

Rhythmic lengthening

Rhythmic lengthening is the process of lengthening the vowel duration of an even-numbered CV syllable in Choctaw. However, vowels at the end of words are not permitted to undergo that process. Also, if an even-numbered syllable is a verbal prefixes class I or III, the affix's vowel may not undergo lengthening, and the same holds true for noun prefixes class III as well.^[9]

CV-CV-CVC→CV-CV꞉-CVC

salahatok→sala꞉hatok

Smallest possible word

The smallest possible word in Choctaw must contain either two short vowels or one long vowel.^[7]

a꞉t

/a-/ insertion: there are verbs with only one short vowel in their roots. Without an affix attached to the verb root, the verbs become impossible utterances because Choctaw requires either two short vowels or a long vowel for a word to be formed. An initial A-prefix is thus attached to the root of the verb.^[10]

*bih → a-bih

Phonological processes

Glide insertion

When a verb root ends with a long vowel, a glide /w/ or /j/ is inserted after the long vowel.^[11]
∅→/wa/ / V꞉____

Where V꞉ is oo
boo-a-h→bóowah

∅→/ja/ / V꞉____

Where V꞉ can be either ii or aa
talaa-a-h→talaayah

/i-/ deletion

In Choctaw, there is a group of nouns which contain an initial /i-/ that encodes for 3rd person possession. It may be deleted, but if the /i/ is part of a VC syllable structure, the C is also deleted, because the resulting CCV syllable is rarely a permissible syllable structure at the onset of words.^[12]

/i/→∅ / #____

Part 1: /i + C/→∅ + /C/ / #____

Part 2: /∅ + C/→∅ / #____

ippókni'→ppókni'→pókni'

/-l-/ infix assimilation

The verbal infix /l/ is pronounced /h, ch, or ɬ/ when /l/ precedes a voiceless consonant.^[13]

l → {h, tʃ, ɬ} /_C_[-voice]

ho-l-tinah → ho-ɬ-tinah

Phonological processes of the suffix /-li/

There are several assimilation processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. When the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by /f/ /ɫ/ /h/ /m/ /n/ or /w/, the /l/ assimilates to the corresponding consonant that precedes it.^[14] Also, the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /b/, the /l/ is realized as /b/.^[14] Third, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /p/, the /p/ is pronounced as /b/.^[14] Lastly, when the verbal suffix /-li/ is preceded by the consonant /t/, the /t/ is pronounced as /l/.^[14]

/l/→/f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/ / /f, ɫ, h, m, n, w/____

/kobaf-li-h/→ kobaaffih

/l/→/b/ / /b/____

/atob-li-h/→ atobbih

/p/→/b/ / /b/____

/tap-li-h/→ tablih

/t/→/l/ / ____/l/

/palhat-li-h/→ pallalih

There are two deletion processes that occur with the suffix /-li/. If the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the verbal suffix /-tʃi/, the suffix /-li/ may be deleted if the resulting syllable, after deletion, is a consonant cluster.^[15] The other process occurs when the verbal suffix /-li/ precedes the suffix /-t/, which results with the suffix /-li/ being sometimes deleted if the syllable /-li/ has not already gone under phonological processes as described above.^[16]

/li/→∅ / ____/tʃi/

balii-li-chi-h→balii-chi-h

/li/→∅ / ____/t/

balii-li--h→balii-t

Schwa insertion

Schwa insertion: when a glottal fricative Шаблон:IPA or a velar stop Шаблон:IPA precedes a voiced consonant within a consonant cluster, a schwa Шаблон:IPA is inserted to break up the consonant cluster.^[17]

∅→Шаблон:IPA / Шаблон:IPA____[+voiced] consonant

'ahnih'→/ahənih/

Vowel deletion

Vowel deletion is the process of a short vowel being deleted at a morpheme boundary. It occurs when an affix containing a short vowel at the morpheme boundary binds to a word that also contains a short vowel at the morpheme boundary.^[18]

For most vowel deletion cases, the preceding short vowel is deleted at the morpheme boundary.^[18]

V→∅ / ____V

/baliili-aatʃĩ-h/→baliilaatʃĩh

If a class II suffix attaches to a word that results with two short vowels occurring together, the short vowel that follows the class II suffix is deleted.^[18]

V→∅ / V____

/sa-ibaa-waʃoohah/→sabaa-waʃoohah

Morphology and grammar

Verbal morphology

Choctaw verbs display a wide range of inflectional and derivational morphology. In Choctaw, the category of verb may also include words that would be categorized as adjectives or quantifiers in English. Verbs may be preceded by up to three prefixes and followed by as many as five suffixes. In addition, verb roots may contain infixes that convey aspectual information.

Verb prefixes

The verbal prefixes convey information about the arguments of the verb: how many there are and their person and number features. The prefixes can be divided into three sorts: agreement markers, applicative markers, and anaphors (reflexives and reciprocals). The prefixes occur in the following order: agreement-anaphor-applicative-verb stem.

Agreement affixes

The agreement affixes are shown in the following chart. The only suffix among the personal agreement markers is the first-person singular class I agreement marker /-li/. Third-person is completely unmarked for class I and class II agreement arguments and never indicates number.^[19]


person markers			class I			class II		class III		class N		imperative
person markers			+s	+C	+V	+C/i	+a/o	+C	+V	+C	+V	+C	+V
first-person	singular	initial	-li			sa-	si-	a̱-	am-	ak-		n/a
	singular	medial	-li			sa-	si-	-sa̱-	-sam-	ak-
	paucal		ii-		il-	pi-		pi̱-	pim-	kii-	kil-
	plural		ii-		il-	hapi-		hapi̱-	hapim-	kii-	kil-
second-person	singular		is-	ish-		chi-		chi̱-	chim-	chik-		∅
second-person	plural		has-	hash-		hachi-		hachi̱-	hachim-	hachik-		ho-	oh-
third-person			∅			∅		i̱-	im-	ik-

Some authors (Ulrich 1986, Davies, 1986) refer to class I as actor or nominative, class II as patient or accusative and class III as dative. Broadwell prefers the neutral numbered labels because the actual use of the affixes is more complex. This type of morphology is generally referred to as active–stative and polypersonal agreement.

Class I affixes always indicate the subject of the verb. Class II prefixes usually indicate direct object of active verbs and the subject of stative verbs. Class III prefixes indicate the indirect object of active verbs. A small set of stative psychological verbs have class III subjects; an even smaller set of stative verbs dealing primarily with affect, communication and intimacy have class III direct objects.

Active verbs

As the chart above shows, there is no person-number agreement for third person arguments. Consider the following paradigms:

hablitok ("kicked", past tense)
singular	paucal	plural	singular	plural		third-person
style="background: none; border: none;" colspan="2" rowspan="2" Шаблон:Diagonal split header	first-person			second-person		third-person
first-person	singular	ili-habli-li-tokШаблон:Ref 'I kicked myself'	pi-habli-li-tok 'I kicked us (few)'	hapi-habli-li-tok 'I kicked us (all)'	chi-habli-li-tok 'I kicked you'	hachi-habli-li-tok 'I kicked you (pl.)'	habli-li-tok 'I kicked her/him/it/them'
first-person	plural	ii-sa-habli-tok 'we kicked me'	il-ili-habli-tokШаблон:Ref 'we kicked ourselves'		ii-chi-habli-tok 'we kicked you'	ii-hachi-habli-tok 'we kicked you (pl.)'	ii-habli-tok 'we kicked her/him/it/them'
second-person	singular	is-sa-habli-tok 'you kicked me'	ish-pi-habli-tok 'you kicked us (few)'	ish-hapi-habli-tok 'you kicked us (all)'	ish-ili-habli-tokШаблон:Ref 'you kicked yourself'	ish-hachi-habli-tok 'ýou kicked you (pl.)'	ish-habli-tok 'you kicked her/him/it/them'
second-person	plural	has-sa-habli-tok 'you (pl.) kicked me'	hash-pi-habli-tok 'you (pl.) kicked us (few)'	hash-hapi-habli-tok 'you (pl.) kicked us (all)'	hash-chi-habli-tok 'you (pl.) kicked you'	hash-ili-habli-tokШаблон:Ref 'you (pl.) kicked yourselves'	hash-habli-tok 'you (pl.) kicked her/him/it/them'
third-person		sa-habli-tok 'she/he/it/they kicked me'	pi-habli-tok 'she/etc. kicked us (few)'	hapi-habli-tok 'she/etc. kicked us (all)'	chi-habli-tok 'she/etc. kicked you'	hachi-habli-tok 'she/etc. kicked you (pl.)'	habli-tok "she/etc. kicked her/him/it/them" ili-habli-tokШаблон:Ref 'she/etc. kicked herself/etc.'

Шаблон:Note When the subject and object refer to the same thing or person (coreference), the reflexive ili- prefix is mandatory and used in place of the coreferent object.

Transitive active verbs seemingly with class III direct objects:

Am-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told me.'
Chim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told you.'
Im-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told him/her/it/them.'
Pim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told us.'
Hachim-anoli-tok 'She/he/it/they told y'all.'

When a transitive verb occurs with more than one agreement prefix, I prefixes precede II and III prefixes:

Name of Grade	How it is formed	When it is used
n-grade	infix n in the next to last (penultimate) syllable; put accent on this syllable	to show that the action is durative (lasts some definite length of time)
l-grade	put accent on next to last (penultimate) syllable; lengthen the vowel if the syllable is open	before a few common suffixes, such as the negative /-o(k)/ and the switch-reference markers /-cha/ and /-na/
hn-grade	insert a new syllable /-hV̱/ after the (original) next to last (penultimate) syllable. V̱ is a nasalized copy of the vowel that precedes it.	to show that the action of the verb repeats
y-grade	insert -Vyy- before the next to last (penultimate) syllable	to show delayed inception
g-grade	formed by lengthening the penultimate vowel of the stem, accenting the antepenultimate vowel, and geminating the consonant that follows the antepenult.	to show delayed inception
h-grade	insert -h- after the penultimate vowel of the stem.	to show sudden action

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Английская Википедия:Choctaw language

Orthography

Dialects

Phonology

Consonants

Free variation

Phonological processes of consonants

Vowels

Pitch

Syllable structure

Rhythmic lengthening

Smallest possible word

Phonological processes

Glide insertion

/i-/ deletion

/-l-/ infix assimilation

Phonological processes of the suffix /-li/

Schwa insertion

Vowel deletion

Morphology and grammar

Verbal morphology

Verb prefixes

Agreement affixes

Active verbs

Stative verbs

Negatives

Anaphoric prefixes

Verb suffixes

Verbal infixes

Nominal morphology

Noun prefixes

Noun suffixes

Word order and case marking

Examples

See also

References

Sources

Further reading

External links

Навигация

Поиск