Английская Википедия:Cirth
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox writing system The Cirth (Шаблон:IPA, meaning "runes"; sg. certh Шаблон:IPA) is a semi‑artificial script, based on real‑life runic alphabets, one of several scripts invented by J. R. R. Tolkien for the constructed languages he devised and used in his works. Cirth is written with a capital letter when referring to the writing system; the letters themselves can be called cirth.
In the fictional history of Middle-earth, the original Certhas was created by the Sindar (or Grey Elves) for their language, Sindarin. Its extension and elaboration was known as the Angerthas Daeron, as it was attributed to the Sinda Daeron, despite the fact that it was most probably arranged by the Noldor in order to represent the sounds of other languages like Quenya and Telerin.
Although it was later largely replaced by the Tengwar, the Cirth was nonetheless adopted by the Dwarves to write down both their Khuzdul language (Angerthas Moria) and the languages of Men (Angerthas Erebor). The Cirth was also adapted, in its oldest and simplest form, by various races including Men and even Orcs.
External history
Concept and creation
Many letters have shapes also found in the historical runic alphabets, but their sound values are only similar in a few of the vowels. Rather, the system of assignment of sound values is much more systematic in the Cirth than in the historical runes (e.g., voiced variants of a voiceless sound are expressed by an additional stroke).
The division between the older Cirth of Daeron and their adaptation by Dwarves and Men has been interpreted as a parallel drawn by Tolkien to the development of the Fuþorc to the Younger Fuþark.[1] The original Elvish Cirth "as supposed products of a superior culture" are focused on logical arrangement and a close connection between form and value whereas the adaptations by mortal races introduced irregularities. Similar to the Germanic tribes who had no written literature and used only simple runes before their conversion to Christianity, the Sindarin Elves of Beleriand with their Cirth were introduced to the more elaborate Tengwar of Fëanor when the Noldorin Elves returned to Middle-earth from the lands of the divine Valar.[2]
Internal history and description
Certhas
In the Appendix E to The Return of the King, Tolkien writes that the Sindar of Beleriand first developed an alphabet for their language some time between the invention of the Tengwar by Fëanor (YT 1250) and the introduction thereof to Middle-earth by the Exiled Noldor at the beginning of the First Age.[3]
This alphabet was devised to represent only the sounds of their Sindarin language and its letters were mostly used for inscribing names or brief memorials on wood, stone or metal, hence their angular shapes and straight lines.[3] In Sindarin these letters were named cirth (sing. certh), from the Elvish root *kir- meaning "to cleave, to cut".[4] An abecedarium of cirth, consisting of the runes listed in due order, was commonly known as Certhas (Шаблон:IPA, meaning "rune-rows" in Sindarin and loosely translated as "runic alphabet"[5]).
The oldest cirth were the following:[3]
| Consonants | Файл:Certh 1.svg p | Файл:Certh 2.svg b | Файл:Certh 5.svg mh | Файл:Certh 6.svg m | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Файл:Certh 8.svg t | Файл:Certh 9.svg d | Файл:Certh 12.svg n | |||
| Файл:Certh 18.svg k | Файл:Certh 19.svg g | Файл:Certh 22.svg ng | |||
| Файл:Certh 29.svg r | Файл:Certh 31.svg l | Файл:Certh 13.svg ~ Файл:Certh 15.svg h or s | Файл:Certh 35.svg s or h | Файл:Certh 36.svg ss | |
| Vowels | Файл:Certh 39.svg i | Файл:Certh 42.svg u | Файл:Certh 46.svg e | Файл:Certh 50.svg o |
The form of these letters was somewhat unsystematic, unlike later rearrangements and extensions that made them more featural.[3] The cirth Файл:Certh 13.svg and Файл:Certh 35.svg were used for Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, but varied as to which was which.[3] Many of the runes consisted of a single vertical line (or "stem") with an appendage (or "branch") attached to one or both sides. If the attachment was made on one side only, it was usually to the right, but "the reverse was not infrequent" and did not change the value of the letter.[3] (For example, the variants Файл:Certh 13.svg or Файл:Certh 15.svg specifically mentioned for h or s, also Файл:Certh 8.svg or Файл:Certh 10.svg for t, etc).
Angerthas Daeron
In Beleriand, before the end of the First Age, the Certhas was rearranged and further developed, partly under the influence of the Tengwar introduced by the Noldor. This reorganisation of the Cirth was commonly attributed to the Elf Daeron, minstrel and loremaster of King Thingol of Doriath. Thus, the new system became known as the Angerthas Daeron[3] (where "angerthas" Шаблон:Nowrap is from Sindarin Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Nowrap + "certhas" Шаблон:IPA, meaning "long rune-rows"[6]).
In this arrangement, the assignment of values to each certh is systematic. The runes consisting of a stem and a branch attached to the right are used for voiceless stops, while other sounds are allocated according to the following principles:[3]
- adding a stroke to a branch adds voice (e.g., Файл:Certh 1.svg Шаблон:IPA → Файл:Certh 2.svg Шаблон:IPA);
- moving the branch to the left indicates opening to a spirant (e.g., Файл:Certh 8.svg Шаблон:IPA → Файл:Certh 10.svg Шаблон:IPA);
- placing the branch on both sides of the stem adds voice and nasality (e.g., Файл:Certh 18.svg Шаблон:IPA → Файл:Certh 22.svg Шаблон:IPA).
The cirth constructed in this way can therefore be arranged into series, each corresponding to a place of articulation:
- labial consonants, based on Файл:Certh 1.svg;
- dental consonants, based on Файл:Certh 8.svg;
- front consonants, based on Файл:Certh 13.svg;
- velar consonants, based on Файл:Certh 18.svg;
- labialized velar consonants, based on Файл:Certh 23.svg.
Other letters introduced in this system include: Файл:Certh 48.svg and Шаблон:Nowrap for Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, respectively; runes for long vowels, evidently originated by doubling and binding the certh of the corresponding short vowel (e.g., Шаблон:Nowrap → Шаблон:Nowrap two front vowels, probably stemming from ligatures of the corresponding back vowel with the Шаблон:Angbr-certh (i.e., Шаблон:Nowrap → Шаблон:Nowrap, and Шаблон:Nowrap → Шаблон:Nowrap some homorganic nasal + stop clusters (e.g., Шаблон:Nowrap
Back to the fictional history, since the new Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap encompass sounds which do not occur in Sindarin but are present in Quenya, they were most probably introduced by the Exiled Noldor[3] who spoke Quenya as a language of knowledge.
By loan-translation, the Cirth became known in Quenya as Certar Шаблон:IPA, while a single certh was called certa Шаблон:IPA.
After the Tengwar became the sole script used for writing, the Angerthas Daeron was essentially relegated to carved inscriptions. The Elves of the West, for the most part, abandoned the Cirth altogether, with the exception of the Noldor dwelling in the country of Eregion, who maintained it in use[3] and made it known as Angerthas Eregion.
Шаблон:A note In this article, the runes of the Angerthas come with the same peculiar transliteration used by Tolkien in the Appendix E, which differs from the (Latin) spelling of both Quenya and Sindarin. The IPA transcription that follows is applicable to both languages, except where indicated otherwise.
| Consonants | Certh | Файл:Certh 29.svg | Файл:Certh 30.svg | Файл:Certh 31.svg | Файл:Certh 32.svg | Файл:Certh 34.svg or Файл:Certh 35.svg | Файл:Certh 36.svg | Файл:Certh 54.svg |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transliteration | r | rh | l | lh | s | ss or zШаблон:Ref label | hШаблон:Ref label | |
| IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | |
| Approximants | Certh | Файл:Certh 44.svg | Файл:Certh 5.svg | |||||
| Transliteration | w | hwШаблон:Ref label | ||||||
| IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | ||||||
| Vowels | Certh | Файл:Certh 39.svg | Файл:Certh 42.svg | Файл:Certh 46.svg | Файл:Certh 48.svg | Файл:Certh 50.svg | ||
| Transliteration | i, y | u | e | a | o | |||
| IPA | Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | |||
| Long vowels |
Certh | Файл:Certh 43.svg | Файл:Certh 47.svg | Файл:Certh 49.svg | Файл:Certh 51.svg or Файл:Certh 51a.svg | |||
| Transliteration | ū | ē | ā | ō | ||||
| IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | ||||
| Fronted vowels |
Certh | Файл:Certh 45.svg or Файл:Certh 45a.svg | Файл:Certh 52.svg or Файл:Certh 52a.svg | |||||
| Transliteration | ü | ö | ||||||
| IPA | Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA | ||||||
Notes: Шаблон:Ordered list
Angerthas Moria
According to Tolkien's legendarium, the Dwarves first came to know the runes of the Noldor at the beginning of the Second Age. The Dwarves "introduced a number of unsystematic changes in value, as well as certain new cirth".[3] They modified the previous system to suit the specific needs of their language, Khuzdul. The Dwarves spread their revised alphabet to Moria, where it came to be known as Angerthas Moria, and developed both carved and pen-written forms of these runes.[3]
Many cirth here represent sounds not occurring in Khuzdul[9] (at least in published words of Khuzdul: of course, our corpus is very limited to judge the necessity or not, of these sounds). Here they are marked with a black star (★).
Notes:
| A. | Шаблон:NoteThe Khuzdul language has two glottal consonants: Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, the latter being "the glottal beginning of a word with an initial vowel".[3] Thus, in need of a reversible certh to represent these sounds, Файл:Certh 54.svg and Файл:Certh 34.svg were switched, giving the former the value Шаблон:IPA and using the latter for Шаблон:IPA, and its reversed counterpart Файл:Certh 35.svg for Шаблон:IPA. |
| B. | Шаблон:NoteThese cirth were a halved form of Файл:Certh 46.svg, used for vowels like those in the word Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPAc-en. Thus, Файл:Certh 55.svg represented a Шаблон:IPA sound in unstressed syllables, while Файл:Certh 56.svg represented Шаблон:IPA, a somehow similar sound, in stressed syllables. When weak they were reduced to a stroke without a stem (Файл:Certh 55a.svg, Файл:Certh 56a.svg).[3] |
| C. | Шаблон:NoteThis letter denotes aspiration in voiceless stops, occurring frequently in Khuzdul as kh and th.[3] |
| D. | Шаблон:NoteThis certh is a scribal abbreviation used to represent a conjunction, and is basically identical to the ampersand Шаблон:Angbr used in Latin script. |
Шаблон:Center
In Angerthas Moria the cirth Файл:Certh 14.svg Шаблон:IPA and Файл:Certh 16.svg Шаблон:IPA were dropped. Thus Файл:Certh 29.svg and Файл:Certh 30.svg were adopted for Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, although they were used for Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in Elvish languages. Subsequently, this script used the certh Файл:Certh 12.svg for Шаблон:IPA, which had the sound Шаблон:IPA in the Elvish systems. Therefore, the certh Файл:Certh 22.svg (which was previously used for the sound Шаблон:IPA, useless in Khuzdul) was adopted for the sound Шаблон:IPA. A totally new introduction was the certh Файл:Certh 53.svg, used as an alternative, simplified and, maybe, weaker form of Файл:Certh 22.svg. Because of the visual relation of these two cirth, the certh Файл:Certh 17.svg was given the sound Шаблон:IPA to relate better with Файл:Certh 54.svg that, in this script, had the sound Шаблон:IPA.[3]
Angerthas Erebor
At the beginning of the Third Age the Dwarves were driven out of Moria, and some migrated to Erebor. As the Dwarves of Erebor would trade with the Men of the nearby towns of Dale and Lake-town, they needed a script to write in Westron (the lingua franca of Middle-earth, usually rendered in English by Tolkien in his works). The Angerthas Moria was adapted accordingly: some new cirth were added, while some were restored to their Elvish usage, thus creating the Angerthas Erebor.[3]
While the Angerthas Moria was still used to write down Khuzdul, this new script was primarily used for Mannish languages. It is also the script used in the first and third page of the Book of Mazarbul.Шаблон:Citation needed
Angerthas Erebor also features combining diacritics:
- a circumflex Файл:Certh Circumflex.png used to denote long consonants;
- a macron below Файл:Certh Macron below.png to indicate a long vowel sound;
- an underdot Файл:Certh Underdot.png to mark cirth used as numerals. As a matter of fact, in the Book of Mazarbul some cirth are used as numerals: Файл:Certh 39.svg for 1, Файл:Certh 50.svg for 2, Файл:Certh 52.svg for 3, Файл:Gondolin rune b.svg for 4, Файл:Certh 22.svg for 5.
The Angerthas Erebor is used twice in The Lord of the Rings to write in English:
- in the upper inscription of the title page, where it reads "[dh]ə·lord·ov·[dh]ə·riŋs·translatᵊd·from·[dh]ə·red·b[oo]k' ..." (the sentence follows in the bottom inscription, written in Tengwar: "... of Westmarch by John Ronald Reuel Tolkien. Herein is set forth/ the history of the War of the Ring and the Return of the King as seen by the Hobbits.");
- in the bottom inscription of Balin's tomb—being the translation of the upper inscription, which is written in Khuzdul using Angerthas Moria.
The Book of Mazarbul shows some additional cirth used in Angerthas Erebor: one for a double Шаблон:Angbr ligature, one for the definite article, and six for the representation of the same number of English diphthongs:
Notes:
| A. | Шаблон:NoteThis certh is a scribal abbreviation used to represent the definite article. Although in English it stands for Шаблон:Angbr, it can assume different values according to the used language. |
| ∗. | Шаблон:NoteThe cirth marked with an asterisk are unique to Angerthas Erebor. |
Other runic scripts by Tolkien
The Cirth is not the only runic writing system used by Tolkien in his legendarium. In fact, he devised a great number of runic alphabets, of which only a few others have been published. Some of these are included in the "Appendix on Runes" of The Treason of Isengard (The History of Middle-earth, vol. VII), edited by Christopher Tolkien.[10]
Runes from The Hobbit
According to Tolkien himself, those found in The Hobbit are a form of "English runes" used in lieu of the Dwarvish runes proper.[11] They can be interpreted as an attempt made by Tolkien to adapt the Fuþorc (i.e., the Old English runic alphabet) to the Modern English language.[12]
These runes are basically the same found in Fuþorc, but their sound may change according to their position, just like the letters of the Latin script: the writing mode used by Tolkien is, in this case, mainly orthographic.[13] This means that the system has one rune for each Latin letter, regardless of pronunciation.[13] For example, the rune Файл:Certh 13.svg Шаблон:Angbr can sound Шаблон:IPAc-en in Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:IPAc-en in Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:IPAc-en in Шаблон:Angbr, and even Шаблон:IPAc-en in the digraph Шаблон:Nowrap Шаблон:Angbr.[14]
A few sounds are instead written with the same rune, without considering the English spelling. For example, the sound Шаблон:IPAc-en is always written with the rune Файл:Certh 24.svg whether in English it is spelt Шаблон:Angbr as in Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr as in Шаблон:Angbr, or Шаблон:Angbr as in Шаблон:Angbr. The only two letters that are subject to this phonemic spelling are Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr.[13]
Finally, some runes stand for particular English digraphs and diphthongs.[11][13]
Here the runes used in The Hobbit are displayed along with their Fuþorc counterpart and corresponding English grapheme:
Notes: Шаблон:Ordered list
| English grapheme | Sound value (IPA) |
Rune |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Angbr | Шаблон:IPAc-en | Файл:Certh 9.svg |
| every other sound | Файл:Tolkien's Futhorc A.svg | |
| Шаблон:IPAc-en | Файл:Certh 24.svg | |
| Шаблон:Angbr | every sound | |
| Шаблон:Angbr | Шаблон:IPAc-en | |
| every other sound | Файл:Certh 5.svg |
Gondolinic runes
Not all the runes mentioned in The Hobbit are Dwarf-runes. The swords found in the Trolls' cave bore runes that Gandalf could not read. In fact, the swords Glamdring and Orcrist (which were forged in the ancient kingdom of Gondolin) bore a type of letters known as Gondolinic runes. They seem to have become obsolete and been forgotten by the Third Age, and this is supported by the fact that only Elrond could still read the inscriptions on the swords.[11]
Tolkien devised this runic alphabet in a very early stage of his shaping of Middle-earth. Nevertheless, they are known to us from a slip of paper that Tolkien wrote; his son Christopher sent a photocopy of it to Paul Nolan Hyde in February 1992. Hyde published it, with an extensive analysis, in the 1992 Summer issue of Mythlore, no. 69.[15]
The system provides sounds not found in any of the known Elvish languages of the First Age, but perhaps it was designed for a variety of languages. However, the consonants seem to be, more or less, the same found in Welsh phonology, a theory supported by the fact that Tolkien was heavily influenced by Welsh when creating Elvish languages.[16]
Encoding schemes
Unicode
Equivalents for some (but not all) cirth can be found in the Runic block of Unicode.
Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes received explicit recognition with the introduction of his three additional runes to the Runic block with the release of Unicode 7.0, in June 2014. The three characters represent the English Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr graphemes, as follows:
A formal Unicode proposal to encode Cirth as a separate script was made in September 1997 by Michael Everson.[17] No action was taken by the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) but Cirth appears in the Roadmap to the SMP.[18]
ConScript Unicode Registry
Unicode Private Use Area layouts for Cirth are defined at the ConScript Unicode Registry (CSUR)[19] and the Under-ConScript Unicode Registry (UCSUR).[20]
Two different layouts are defined by the CSUR/UCSUR:
- 1997-11-03 proposal[21] implemented by fonts like GNU Unifont[22] and Code2000.
- 2000-04-22 discussion paper[23][24] implemented by fonts like Constructium and Fairfax.
Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols below instead of Cirth.
See also
References
Шаблон:Languages of Middle-earth Шаблон:Middle-earth Шаблон:Constructed languages
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite conference
- ↑ 3,00 3,01 3,02 3,03 3,04 3,05 3,06 3,07 3,08 3,09 3,10 3,11 3,12 3,13 3,14 3,15 3,16 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 11,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 13,3 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite letter
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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