Английская Википедия:Classic of Poetry

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Шаблон:Infobox book The Classic of Poetry, also Shijing or Shih-ching, translated variously as the Book of Songs, Book of Odes, or simply known as the Odes or Poetry (Шаблон:Lang; Shī), is the oldest existing collection of Chinese poetry, comprising 305 works dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. It is one of the "Five Classics" traditionally said to have been compiled by Confucius, and has been studied and memorized by scholars in China and neighboring countries over two millennia. It is also a rich source of chengyu (four-character classical idioms) that are still a part of learned discourse and even everyday language in modern Chinese. Since the Qing dynasty, its rhyme patterns have also been analysed in the study of Old Chinese phonology.

Name

Early references refer to the anthology as the 300 Poems (shi). The Odes first became known as a jīng, or a "classic book", in the canonical sense, as part of the Han Dynasty's official adoption of Confucianism as the guiding principle of Chinese society.Шаблон:Citation needed The same word shi later became a generic term for poetry.Шаблон:Sfnp In English, lacking an exact equivalent for the Chinese, the translation of the word shi in this regard is generally as "poem", "song", or "ode". Before its elevation as a canonical classic, the Classic of Poetry (Shi jing) was known as the Three Hundred Songs or the Songs.Шаблон:Sfnp

Content

The Classic of Poetry contains the oldest chronologically authenticated Chinese poems.Шаблон:Sfnp The majority of the Odes date to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), and were drawn from around provinces and cities in the Zhongyuan area. A final section of 5 "Eulogies of Shang" purports to be ritual songs of the Shang dynasty as handed down by their descendants in the state of Song, but is generally considered quite late in date.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp According to the Eastern Han scholar Zheng Xuan, the latest material in the Shijing was the song "Tree-Stump Grove" (Шаблон:Lang) in the "Odes of Chen", dated to the middle of the Spring and Autumn period (Шаблон:Circa 700 BCE).[1]

Part Number and meaning Date (BCE)Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp
Шаблон:Lang Guó fēng 160 "Airs of the States" 8th & 7th century
Шаблон:Lang Xiǎo yǎ 74 "Lesser Court Hymns" 9th & 8th century
Шаблон:Lang Dà yǎ 31 "Major Court Hymns" 10th & 9th century
Шаблон:Lang Zhōu sòng 31 "Eulogies of Zhou" 11th & 10th century
Шаблон:Lang Lǔ sòng 4 "Eulogies of Lu" 7th century
Шаблон:Lang Shāng sòng 5 "Eulogies of Shang" 7th century

The content of the Poetry can be divided into two main sections: the "Airs of the States", and the "Eulogies" and "Hymns".Шаблон:Sfnp

The "Airs of the States" are shorter lyrics in simple language that are generally ancient folk songs which record the voice of the common people.Шаблон:Sfnp They often speak of love and courtship, longing for an absent lover, soldiers on campaign, farming and housework, and political satire and protest.Шаблон:Sfnp The first song of the "Airs of the States", "Fishhawk" (Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:Lang), is a well-known example of the category. Confucius commented on it, and it was traditionally given special interpretive weight.Шаблон:Sfnp

Шаблон:Verse translation

On the other hand, songs in the two "Hymns" sections and the "Eulogies" section tend to be longer ritual or sacrificial songs, usually in the forms of courtly panegyrics and dynastic hymns which praise the founders of the Zhou dynasty.Шаблон:Sfnp They also include hymns used in sacrificial rites and songs used by the aristocracy in their sacrificial ceremonies or at banquets.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp

"Court Hymns" contains "Lesser Court Hymns" and "Major Court Hymns". Most of the poems were used by the aristocrats to pray for good harvests each year, worship gods, and venerate their ancestors. The authors of "Major Court Hymns" are nobles who were dissatisfied with the political reality. Therefore, they wrote poems not only related to the feast, worship, and epic but also to reflect the public feelings.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Verse translation

Style

Whether the various Shijing poems were folk songs or not, they "all seem to have passed through the hands of men of letters at the royal Zhou court".Шаблон:Sfnp In other words, they show an overall literary polish together with some general stylistic consistency. About 95% of lines in the Poetry are written in a four-syllable meter, with a slight caesura between the second and third syllables.Шаблон:Sfnp Lines tend to occur in syntactically related couplets, with occasional parallelism, and longer poems are generally divided into similarly structured stanzas.Шаблон:Sfnp

All but six of the "Eulogies" consist of a single stanza, and the "Court Hymns" exhibit wide variation in the number of stanzas and their lengths. Almost all of the "Airs", however, consist of three stanzas, with four-line stanzas being most common.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp Although a few rhyming couplets occur, the standard pattern in such four-line stanzas required a rhyme between the second and fourth lines. Often the first or third lines would rhyme with these, or with each other.Шаблон:Sfnp This style later became known as the "shi" style for much of Chinese history.

One of the characteristics of the poems in the Classic of Poetry is that they tend to possess "elements of repetition and variation".Шаблон:Sfnp This results in an "alteration of similarities and differences in the formal structure: in successive stanzas, some lines and phrases are repeated verbatim, while others vary from stanza to stanza".Шаблон:Sfnp Characteristically, the parallel or syntactically matched lines within a specific poem share the same, identical words (or characters) to a large degree, as opposed to confining the parallelism between lines to using grammatical category matching of the words in one line with the other word in the same position in the corresponding line; but, not by using the same, identical word(s).Шаблон:Sfnp Disallowing verbal repetition within a poem would by the time of Tang poetry be one of the rules to distinguish the old style poetry from the new, regulated style.

The works in the Classic of Poetry vary in their lyrical qualities, which relates to the musical accompaniment with which they were in their early days performed. The songs from the "Hymns" and "Eulogies", which are the oldest material in the Poetry, were performed to slow, heavy accompaniment from bells, drums, and stone chimes.Шаблон:Sfnp However, these and the later actual musical scores or choreography which accompanied the Shijing poems have been lost.

Nearly all of the songs in the Poetry are rhyming, with end rhyme, as well as frequent internal rhyming.Шаблон:Sfnp While some of these verses still rhyme in modern varieties of Chinese, others had ceased to rhyme by the Middle Chinese period. For example, the eighth song (Шаблон:Lang Fú YǐШаблон:Efn) has a tightly constrained structure implying rhymes between the penultimate words (here shown in bold) of each pair of lines:Шаблон:Sfnp

Chinese characters Mandarin pronunciation (pinyin) Early Middle Chinese (Baxter)
采采芣苢、薄言采之。 Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán cǎi zhī. tshojX tshojX bju yiX, bak ngjon tshojX tsyi.
采采芣苢、薄言有之。 Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán yǒu zhī. tshojX tshojX bju yiX, bak ngjon hjuwX tsyi.
 
采采芣苢、薄言掇之。 Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán duó zhī. tshojX tshojX bju yiX, bak ngjon twat tsyi.
采采芣苢、薄言捋之。 Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán luó zhī. tshojX tshojX bju yiX, bak ngjon lwat tsyi.
 
采采芣苢、薄言袺之。 Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán jié zhī. tshojX tshojX bju yiX, bak ngjon ket tsyi.
采采芣苢、薄言襭之。 Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán xié zhī. tshojX tshojX bju yiX, bak ngjon het tsyi.

The second and third stanzas still rhyme in modern Standard Chinese, with the rhyme words even having the same tone, but the first stanza does not rhyme in Middle Chinese or any modern variety. Such cases were attributed to lax rhyming practice until the late-Ming dynasty scholar Chen Di argued that the original rhymes had been obscured by sound change. Since Chen, scholars have analyzed the rhyming patterns of the Poetry as crucial evidence for the reconstruction of Old Chinese phonology.Шаблон:Sfnp

Traditional scholarship of the Poetry identified three major literary devices employed in the songs: straightforward narrative (fù Шаблон:Linktext), explicit comparisons (bǐ Шаблон:Linktext) and implied comparisons (xìng Шаблон:Linktext). The poems of the Classic of Poetry tend to have certain typical patterns in both rhyme and rhythm, to make much use of imagery, often derived from nature.

Authorship

Although the Shijing does not specify the names of authors in association with the contained works, both traditional commentaries and modern scholarship have put forth hypotheses on authorship. The "Golden Coffer" chapter of the Book of Documents says that the poem "Owl" (Шаблон:Lang) in the "Odes of Bin" was written by the Duke of Zhou. Many of the songs appear to be folk songs and other compositions used in the court ceremonies of the aristocracy.Шаблон:Sfnp Furthermore, many of the songs, based on internal evidence, appear to be written either by women, or from the perspective of a female persona. The repeated emphasis on female authorship of poetry in the Shijing was made much of in the process of attempting to give the poems of the women poets of the Ming-Qing period canonical status.Шаблон:Sfnp Despite the impersonality of the poetic voice characteristic of the Songs,Шаблон:Sfnp many of the poems are written from the perspective of various generic personalities.

Textual history

Файл:EN-WesternZhouStates.jpg
Map of states during Western Zhou period

According to tradition, the method of collection of the various Shijing poems involved the appointment of officials, whose duties included documenting verses current from the various states which constituted the empire. Out of these many collected pieces, also according to tradition, Confucius made a final editorial round of decisions for elimination or inclusion in the received version of the Poetry. As with all great literary works of ancient China, the Poetry has been annotated and commented on numerous times throughout history, as well as in this case providing a model to inspire future poetic works.

Various traditions concern the gathering of the compiled songs and the editorial selection from these make up the classic text of the Odes: "Royal Officials' Collecting Songs" (Шаблон:Lang) is recorded in the Book of Han,Шаблон:Efn and "Master Confucius Deletes Songs" (Шаблон:Lang) refers to Confucius and his mention in the Records of the Grand Historian, where it says from originally some 3,000 songs and poems in a previously extant "Odes" that Confucius personally selected the "300" which he felt best conformed to traditional ritual propriety, thus producing the Classic of Poetry.

In 2015 the Anhui University purchased a group of looted manuscripts, among which the oldest extant version of the Classic of Poetry (at least part of it). The manuscript has been published in the first volume of this collection of manuscripts, Шаблон:Transl (Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfnp

Compilation

The Confucian school eventually came to consider the verses of the "Airs of the States" to have been collected in the course of activities of officers dispatched by the Zhou Dynasty court, whose duties included the field collection of the songs local to the territorial states of Zhou.Шаблон:Sfnp This territory was roughly the Yellow River Plain, Shandong, southwestern Hebei, eastern Gansu, and the Han River region. Perhaps during the harvest. After the officials returned from their missions, the king was said to have observed them himself in an effort to understand the current condition of the common people.Шаблон:Sfnp The well-being of the people was of special concern to the Zhou because of their ideological position that the right to rule was based on the benignity of the rulers to the people in accordance with the will of Heaven, and that this Heavenly Mandate would be withdrawn upon the failure of the ruling dynasty to ensure the prosperity of their subjects.Шаблон:Sfnp The people's folksongs were deemed to be the best gauge of their feelings and conditions, and thus indicative of whether the nobility was ruling according to the mandate of Heaven or not. Accordingly, the songs were collected from the various regions, converted from their diverse regional dialects into standard literary language, and presented accompanied with music at the royal courts.Шаблон:Sfnp

Confucius

The Classic of Poetry historically has a major place in the Four Books and Five Classics, the canonical works associated with Confucianism.Шаблон:Sfnp Some pre-Qin dynasty texts, such as the Analects and a recently excavated manuscript from 300 BCE entitled "Confucius' Discussion of the Odes", mention Confucius' involvement with the Classic of Poetry but Han dynasty historian Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian was the first work to directly attribute the work to Confucius.Шаблон:Sfnp Subsequent Confucian tradition held that the Shijing collection was edited by Confucius from a larger 3,000-piece collection to its traditional 305-piece form.Шаблон:Sfnp This claim is believed to reflect an early Chinese tendency to relate all of the Five Classics in some way or another to Confucius, who by the 1st century BCE had become the model of sages and was believed to have maintained a cultural connection to the early Zhou dynasty.Шаблон:Sfnp This view is now generally discredited, as the Zuo zhuan records that the Classic of Poetry already existed in a definitive form when Confucius was just a young child.Шаблон:Sfnp

In works attributed to him, Confucius comments upon the Classic of Poetry in such a way as to indicate that he holds it in great esteem. A story in the Analects recounts that Confucius' son Kong Li told the story: "The Master once stood by himself, and I hurried to seek teaching from him. He asked me, 'You've studied the Odes?' I answered, 'Not yet.' He replied, 'If you have not studied the Odes, then I have nothing to say.'"[2]

Han dynasty

According to Han tradition, the Poetry and other classics were targets of the burning of books in 213 BCE under Qin Shi Huang, and the songs had to be reconstructed largely from memory in the subsequent Han period. However the discovery of pre-Qin copies showing the same variation as Han texts, as well as evidence of Qin patronage of the Poetry, have led modern scholars to doubt this account.Шаблон:Sfnp

During the Han period there were three different versions of the Poetry which each belonged to different hermeneutic traditions.Шаблон:Sfnp The Lu Poetry (Шаблон:Lang Lǔ shī), the Qi Poetry (Шаблон:Lang Qí shī) and the Han Poetry (Шаблон:Lang Hán shī) were officially recognized with chairs at the Imperial Academy during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (156–87 BCE).Шаблон:Sfnp Until the later years of the Eastern Han period, the dominant version of the Poetry was the Lu Poetry, named after the state of Lu, and founded by Shen Pei, a student of a disciple of the Warring States period philosopher Xunzi.Шаблон:Sfnp

The Mao Tradition of the Poetry (Шаблон:Lang Máo shī zhuàn), attributed to an obscure scholar named Máo Hēng (Шаблон:Lang) who lived during the 2nd or 3rd centuries BCE,Шаблон:Sfnp was not officially recognized until the reign of Emperor Ping (1 BCE to 6 CE).Шаблон:Sfnp However, during the Eastern Han period, the Mao Poetry gradually became the primary version.Шаблон:Sfnp Proponents of the Mao Poetry said that its text was descended from the first generation of Confucius' students, and as such should be the authoritative version.Шаблон:Sfnp Xu Shen's influential dictionary Shuowen Jiezi, written in the 2nd-century CE, quotes almost exclusively from the Mao Poetry.Шаблон:Sfnp Finally, the renowned Eastern Han scholar Zheng Xuan used the Mao Poetry as the basis for his annotated 2nd-century edition of the Poetry. Zheng Xuan's edition of the Mao text was itself the basis of the "Right Meaning of the Mao Poetry" (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang) which became the imperially authorized text and commentary on the Poetry in 653 CE.Шаблон:Sfnp

By the 5th-century, the Lu, Qi, and Han traditions had died out, leaving only the Mao Poetry, which has become the received text in use today.Шаблон:Sfnp Only isolated fragments of the Lu text survive, among the remains of the Xiping Stone Classics.Шаблон:Sfnp

Legacy

Confucian allegory

Файл:Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg
Part of the Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn (Шаблон:Lang), an early discussion of the Classic of Poetry

The Book of Odes has been a revered Confucian classic since the Han Dynasty, and has been studied and memorized by centuries of scholars in China.Шаблон:Sfnp The individual songs of the Odes, though frequently on simple, rustic subjects, have traditionally been saddled with extensive, elaborate allegorical meanings that assigned moral or political meaning to the smallest details of each line.Шаблон:Sfnp The popular songs were seen as good keys to understanding the troubles of the common people, and were often read as allegories; complaints against lovers were seen as complaints against faithless rulers,Шаблон:Sfnp "if a maiden warns her lover not to be too rash... commentators promptly discover that the piece refers to a feudal noble whose brother had been plotting against him...".Шаблон:Sfnp

The extensive allegorical traditions associated with the Odes were theorized by Herbert Giles to have begun in the Warring States period as a justification for Confucius' focus upon such a seemingly simple and ordinary collection of verses.[3] These elaborate, far-fetched interpretations seem to have gone completely unquestioned until the 12th century, when scholar Zheng Qiao (Шаблон:Lang, 1104–1162) first wrote his scepticism of them.Шаблон:Sfnp European sinologists like Giles and Marcel Granet ignored these traditional interpretations in their analysis of the original meanings of the Odes. Granet, in his list of rules for properly reading the Odes, wrote that readers should "take no account of the standard interpretation", "reject in no uncertain terms the distinction drawn between songs evicting a good state of morals and songs attesting to perverted morality", and "[discard] all symbolic interpretations, and likewise any interpretation that supposes a refined technique on the part of the poets".[4] These traditional allegories of politics and morality are no longer seriously followed by any modern readers in China or elsewhere.Шаблон:Sfnp

Political influence

The Odes became an important and controversial force, influencing political, social and educational phenomena.Шаблон:Sfnp During the struggle between Confucian, Legalist, and other schools of thought, the Confucians used the Shijing to bolster their viewpoint.Шаблон:Sfnp On the Confucian side, the Shijing became a foundational text which informed and validated literature, education, and political affairs.Шаблон:Sfnp The Legalists, on their side, attempted to suppress the Shijing by violence, after the Legalist philosophy was endorsed by the Qin Dynasty, prior to their final triumph over the neighboring states: the suppression of Confucian and other thought and literature after the Qin victories and the start of Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars era, starting in 213 BCE, extended to attempt to prohibit the Shijing.Шаблон:Sfnp

As the idea of allegorical expression grew, when kingdoms or feudal leaders wished to express or validate their own positions, they would sometimes couch the message within a poem, or by allusion. This practice became common among educated Chinese in their personal correspondences and spread to Japan and Korea as well.

Modern scholarship

Modern scholarship on the Classic of Poetry often focuses on doing linguistic reconstruction and research in Old Chinese by analyzing the rhyme schemes in the Odes, which show vast differences when read in modern Mandarin Chinese.Шаблон:Sfnp Although preserving more Old Chinese syllable endings than Mandarin, Modern Cantonese and Min Nan are also quite different from the Old Chinese language represented in the Odes.Шаблон:Sfnp

C.H. Wang refers to the account of King Wu's victory over the Shang dynasty in the "Major Court Hymns" as the "Weniad" (a name that parallels The Iliad), seeing it as part of a greater narrative discourse in China that extols the virtues of wén (Шаблон:Linktext "literature, culture") over more military interests.Шаблон:Sfnp

Contents list

Summary of groupings of poems from the Classic of Poetry
Guofeng (Шаблон:Zh)
"Airs of the States", poems 001–160
group char group name poem #s
01 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Zhou & South 001–011
02 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Shao & South 012–025
03 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Bei 026–044
04 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Yong 045–054
05 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Wei 055–064
06 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Wang 065–074
07 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Zheng 075–095
08 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Qi 096–106
09 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Wei 107–113
10 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Tang 114–125
11 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Qin 126–135
12 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Chen 136–145
13 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Kuai 146–149
14 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Cao 150–153
15 Шаблон:Lang Odes of Bin 154–160
Xiao Ya (Шаблон:Zh)
"Lesser Court Hymns" poems 161–234
group char group name poem #s
01 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Lu Ming 161–169
02 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Baihua 170–174
03 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Tong Gong 175–184
04 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Qi Fu 185–194
05 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Xiao Min 195–204
06 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Bei Shan 205–214
07 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Sang Hu 215–224
08 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Du Ren Shi 225–234
Da Ya (Шаблон:Lang)
"Major Court Hymns" poems 235–265;
31 total major festal songs (Шаблон:Lang) for solemn court ceremonies
group char group name poem #s
01 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Wen Wang 235–244
02 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Sheng Min 245–254
03 Шаблон:Lang Decade of Dang 255–265
Song (Шаблон:Zh)
"Eulogies" poems 266–305;
40 total praises, hymns, or eulogies sung at spirit sacrifices
group char group name poem #s
01 Шаблон:Lang Sacrificial Odes of Zhou 266–296
01a Шаблон:Lang Decade of Qing Miao 266–275
01b Шаблон:Lang Decade of Chen Gong 276–285
01c Шаблон:Lang Decade of Min You Xiao Zi 286–296
02 Шаблон:Lang Praise Odes of Lu 297–300
03 Шаблон:Lang Sacrificial Odes of Shang 301–305

Note: alternative divisions may be topical or chronological (Legge): Song, Daya, Xiaoya, Guofeng

Notable translations

See also

Шаблон:Portal

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Works cited

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Wikisourcelang Шаблон:Wikisource

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  1. ↑ Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (AD 127–200), Shipu xu 詩譜序.
  2. ↑ Analects 16.13.
  3. ↑ Cited in Шаблон:Harvtxt, p. 19.
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Harvtxt, cited in Шаблон:Harvtxt, p. 20.
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