Английская Википедия:Classical Chinese lexicon

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Cleanup lang The classical Chinese lexicon is a language register marked by a vocabulary that greatly differs from the lexicon of modern vernacular Chinese, or Baihua.

In terms of conciseness and compactness, Classical Chinese rarely uses words composed of two Chinese characters; nearly all words are of one syllable only. This stands directly in contrast with modern Chinese dialects, in which two-syllable words are extremely common. This phenomenon exists, in part, because polysyllabic words evolved in Chinese to disambiguate homophones that result from sound changes. This is similar to such phenomena in English as the pen–pin merger of many dialects in the American south: because the words "pin" and "pen" sound alike in such dialects of English, a certain degree of confusion can occur unless one adds qualifiers like "ink pen" and "stick pin." Similarly, Chinese has acquired many polysyllabic words in order to disambiguate monosyllabic words that sounded different in earlier forms of Chinese but identical in one region or another during later periods. Because Classical Chinese is based on the literary examples of ancient Chinese literature, it has almost none of the two-syllable words present in modern varieties of Chinese.

Classical Chinese has more pronouns compared to the modern vernacular. In particular, whereas Mandarin has one general character to refer to the first-person pronoun ("I"/"me"), Literary Chinese has several, many of which are used as part of honorific language (see Chinese honorifics), and several of which have different grammatical uses (first-person collective, first-person possessive, etc.).Шаблон:Citation needed

In syntax, Classical Chinese words are not restrictively categorized into parts of speech: nouns used as verbs, adjectives used as nouns, and so on. There is no copula in Classical Chinese; "Шаблон:Zhi" (Шаблон:Zh) is a copula in modern Chinese but in old Chinese it was originally a near demonstrative ("this"), the modern Chinese equivalent of which is "Шаблон:Zhi" (Шаблон:Zh).Шаблон:Citation needed

Beyond grammar and vocabulary differences, Classical Chinese can be distinguished by literary and cultural differences: an effort to maintain parallelism and rhythm, even in prose works, and extensive use of literary and cultural allusions, thereby also contributing to brevity.

Many final particles (Шаблон:Zh) and interrogative particles are found in Literary Chinese.

Function words

	Usage	Example	Translation
Шаблон:Linktext	1. Used as a conjunction, which is equivalent to "also" 「Шаблон:Zhi」, "and" 「Шаблон:Zhi」, "but" 「Шаблон:Zhi」, "if" 「Шаблон:Zhi」, and "followed by" 「Шаблон:Zhi」	Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。 (From Analects by Confucius and his disciples)	Learn and practice often (what you have learned), is it not a pleasure?
	2. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "your" 「Шаблон:Zhi」
	3. An alternative for "can" 「Шаблон:Zhi」

Шаблон:Linktext	1. Used as Pronouns, often behind the modal particles 「Шаблон:Zhi」
	2. Used as "Why" 「Шаблон:Zhi」, "where" 「Шаблон:Zhi」, "what" 「Шаблон:Zhi」
	3. Used as an adverb, or used in the first sentence before the verb, that question can be translated as "how" 「Шаблон:Zhi」

Шаблон:Linktext	1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「Шаблон:Zhi」
	2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
	3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase	Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。	Others fail to understand you, but you are not angered, is this not the mark of a gentleman?

Шаблон:Linktext	1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「Шаблон:Zhi」
	2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
	3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase

Шаблон:Linktext	1. As "then", "indeed", "after all", or "namely"	Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。(From Chapter 23 of Volume 2 of Pu Songling's 聊齋志異)	Then he got scared, and found someone who was good at pulse-reading to diagnose it.
	2. As a pronoun, "you", "your"

Шаблон:Linktext	1. Used as a preposition, that the object, which is equivalent to "substitute for", "give", "once upon a time", "opposed", "with", "with regards to"
	2. Used as a preposition, pointed out that the reason for the equivalent of "because"
	3. Used as a preposition, that the passive, which is equivalent to "be"
	4. Used as a verb, which is equivalent to "make", "for", "become"
	5. Used as a preposition, which is equivalent to "at", "When"
	6. Used as a modal particle, often with the pronouns 「Шаблон:Zhi」

Шаблон:Linktext	1. The word used as a tone for the end of the sentence, which is equivalent to 「Шаблон:Zhi」	Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。	(Human beings) were born with hatred; (because) people followed (it), cruelty and brutality grew (within them), and faithfulness died out (end of sentence).
	2. For the tone of the words express a standstill for the sentence
	3. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "he", "them", "it", "here" and "where"
	4. Used as pronouns, equivalent to 「Шаблон:Zhi」 (how/what), 「Шаблон:Zhi」 (what)

Шаблон:Linktext	1. Used as a preposition to indicate reason, equivalent to "in order to"; originally derived from a noun meaning "reason"	Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。(Tao Te Ching) Шаблон:Zhi？Шаблон:Zhi！("Mao Qiu", Shijing)	Therefore, (people) often keep themselves void of desire, in order to see the secret of it (life). Why does he take this long? There must be a reason!
	2. Used as a preposition to indicate means, "with", "using"	殺人以挺與刃，Шаблон:Zhi？(Mencius)	To kill using a club or blade, is there anything to distinguish them?
	3. Used as a preposition to introduce action, where activity takes place within a certain period and location, equivalent to "at", "from"	Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。(Records of the Grand Historian)	Wen (Lord Mengchang) was born on the fifth day of the fifth month.
	4. Used as a conjunction - to indicate juxtaposition, a linked relationship, objective, or causality; similar to Шаблон:Zhi.	談笑以死 。(Zhang Pu)	They talked with laughter before they died (were executed).

Шаблон:Linktext	1. Third person possessive pronoun	Шаблон:Zhi。(Mencius)	There has never been a humane person who abandoned his parents.
	2. Modal particle expressing doubt or possibility	其無後乎？(Mencius)	Surely he must not have any descendants?
	3. Modal particle expressing a softened imperative: an exhortation or wish (rather than a command)	其無廢先君之功！(Zuozhuan)	Please do not destroy the previous sovereign's achievements!

Шаблон:Linktext	"And", "Furthermore"
Шаблон:Linktext	"If", "Assuming that"	Шаблон:Zhi。	Being careful everyday as if there were dangers.
Шаблон:Linktext	"That which"
Шаблон:Linktext	Used at the end of the sentence to provide a positive, emphasizing or doubtful tone. If used within the sentence, indicates a pause to delay the mood.	Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。	In the west of it there is a large mountain, (which is) the tallest under heaven (on Earth).
Шаблон:Linktext	"Rely on"; "build on", "inherit"	為高必因丘陵。(Mencius) Шаблон:Zhi。(Analects)	To build high, one necessarily relies on hills and mounts. Zhou inherits the rituals of Yin.
Шаблон:Linktext	Used as a preposition for place, reason; expression of action behaviour and the introduction of premises, time, motion, target, location, relationship between people, introduction to the object of comparison or analogy.
Шаблон:Linktext	"and", "with", "to", "for", "give"
Шаблон:Linktext	Used as a conjunction - translated as "just", "still, but...", "however", "in that case"
Шаблон:Linktext	Particle which refers to people, objects, times, locations, etc. When placed after the subject, indicates a slight pause, or expresses determination.
Шаблон:Linktext	1. Third person object pronoun	民不畏死，Шаблон:Zhi？(From the Tao Te Ching, by Lao Tsu)	The people do not fear death; how can one frighten them with it?
	2. Near demonstrative pronoun, 'this'	之子于歸，Шаблон:Zhi。("Tao Yao", Shijing)	This lady goes to her marriage, befitting for her chamber and house.
	3. Possessive marker ('s) for personal pronouns. Use similar or equivalent to modern Шаблон:Zhi.	孫子曰：Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi。 (From The Art of War, by Sun Zi)	Sun Zi says: Of war, life-and-death's field, survival-and-extinction's way, should not be unexamined.
	4. Nominalization marker. Inserted between subject and predicate to convert a clause into a noun phrase. Can be thought of as an extension of (2) above.	喜怒哀樂之動乎中，Шаблон:Zhi。	The welling of happiness, anger, grief, or pleasure in one's heart is always outwardly expressed.
	5. Transitive verb, "to go"	吾欲之南海，Шаблон:Zhi？	I wish to go to the southern seas; what do you think?
Шаблон:Linktext	Speech indicator, similar to "says" or "said".	Шаблон:Zhi：「Шаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:Zhi？」	The old man laughed and said, "In normal days we don't have much of a relation, why would you want to call back the dead's soul in my house?"
Шаблон:Linktext	Also; too.
Шаблон:Linktext	Therefore, Cause, Reason, Happening, Instance	Шаблон:Zhi？	Why is this? (lit. "What caused this?")

Note that for the descriptions provided above, English equivalents are provided in double quotation marks (""), while equivalents in vernacular Chinese are provided in hooked brackets (「」).

Content words

As with function words, there are many differences between the content words of Classical Chinese and those of Baihua. Below are synonyms used in the two registers. Some Classical Chinese words can have more than one meaning.

However, Classical Chinese words still exist among many chengyu, or Chinese idioms.

The Classical Chinese words and examples will be written in traditional Chinese characters, and the modern vernacular will be written in both simplified and traditional characters.

Classical Chinese word	Part of speech	Baihua word (simplified)	Baihua word (traditional)	Meaning	Classical Chinese example	Baihua translation (simplified)	Baihua translation (traditional)	English meaning
日	noun	太阳	太陽	sun	雲開見Шаблон:Zhi	拔开云雾，见到太阳。	拔開雲霧，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。	The clouds opened and the sun shone through.
目	noun	眼睛	眼睛	eye	每毙一人掩其Шаблон:Zhi	因此每射杀一个人，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。	因此每射殺一個人，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。	Whenever he killed a man, he covered his eyes.
虎	noun	老虎	老虎	tiger	不入Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi	不敢进入Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。Шаблон:Citation needed	不敢進入Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。	One may only catch the tiger cub by entering the tiger's den.
犬	noun	狗	狗	dog	一犬吠形，百犬吠聲	一只Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。Шаблон:Citation needed	一隻Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi，Шаблон:ZhiШаблон:ZhiШаблон:Zhi。	One barking dog sets all the street abark.

See also

• Chinese adjectives
• Chinese grammar
• Chinese particles
• Chinese pronouns
• Chinese verbs
• Classical Chinese grammar
• Classical Chinese
• Vernacular Chinese

Sources

• 《新高中文言手册》 （1998年 北京华书）
• 《新华字典》 （第10版）

Further reading

• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book
• Шаблон:Cite book (Original from Harvard University) (Digitized 2008-10-13)
• Шаблон:Cite book (Original from Oxford University) (Digitized 2007-07-03)
• Шаблон:Cite book (Original from the University of California) (Digitized 2007-05-02)
• Шаблон:Cite book (Original from Harvard University)

External links

• Chinese Notes: 古文入门 Introduction to Classical Chinese