Английская Википедия:Classical Japanese

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Distinguish

Шаблон:Infobox language

The classical Japanese language (Шаблон:Nihongo2 bungo, "literary language"), also called "old writing" (Шаблон:Nihongo2 kobun), sometimes simply called "Medieval Japanese" is the literary form of the Japanese language that was the standard until the early Shōwa period (1926–1989). It is based on Early Middle Japanese, the language as spoken during the Heian period (794–1185), but exhibits some later influences. Its use started to decline during the late Meiji period (1868–1912) when novelists started writing their works in the spoken form. Eventually, the spoken style came into widespread use, including in major newspapers, but many official documents were still written in the old style. After the end of World War II, most documents switched to the spoken style, although the classical style continues to be used in traditional genres, such as haiku and waka. Old laws are also left in the classical style unless fully revised.

The terms Шаблон:Lang (bungo "written language") and Шаблон:Lang (kōgo "spoken language") are still used for classical and modern Japanese,[1] respectively. Their literal meanings are only historical, as classical Japanese is no longer used, while modern Japanese is the only current written language, despite its name. These terms are often used in descriptions of grammar to distinguish classical and modern inflections. For example, the bungo inflection of the verb 書く (kaku "to write") is quadrigrade (kaka, kaki, kaku, kake), but its kōgo inflection is quintigrade due to a historical sound change (kaka, kakō < kakau < kakamu, kaki, kaku, kake).

History

Classical Japanese began to be written during the Heian period, at which point it was very similar to spoken Japanese. It became the written standard for the Japanese language for many centuries, though the spoken language continued to evolve and by the Edo period was substantially different from classical Japanese.[2] This is known as diglossia, a situation in which two forms of a language, in this case a written and spoken form, coexist.[3] During the Meiji period, some intellectuals sought the abolition of classical Japanese, such as the Genbun Itchi movement, which proposed that written Japanese conform to the vernacular spoken language. Futabatei Shimei's 1887 novel The Drifting Cloud was one of the first novels to be written in vernacular Japanese rather than classical. By 1908, novels no longer used classical Japanese, and by the 1920s the same was true of all newspapers.[4] Government documents remained in classical Japanese until 1946.[5] Classical Japanese continues to be taught in Japanese high schools and universities due to its importance in the study of traditional Japanese literature.[2]

Orthography

Classical Japanese is written in an orthography that differs from modern Japanese in two major ways. These are the usage of old character forms (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kyūjitai) and historical kana usage (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Rekishi-teki kana-zukai).

Old character forms (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kyūjitai)

Old character forms are the forms of Chinese characters (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kanji) used in Japan before the post-World War II spelling reforms there. The modern, simplified characters are called new character forms (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Shinjitai).

A few examples follow, with the old characters on the left and the new characters on the right:

Noted that the kana spelling of a kanji is not unique; e.g. In modern Japanese, Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Шаблон:Nihongo2, "physical body") and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Шаблон:Nihongo2, "forms of government") . Additionally in classical Japanese, Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Шаблон:Nihongo2, "change") and Шаблон:Nihongo2(Шаблон:Nihongo2, "to change, modify"). The above spelling differences are etymological. For example, Шаблон:Nihongo2 is just a native Japanese word labeled by a Chinese character with similar meaning, while Шаблон:Nihongo2 is totally a new word derived from the combination of original meanings of two Chinese characters(Шаблон:Lang means "politics" and Шаблон:Lang means "body").

In cases like those of the first two, the entire original character has essentially been replaced by a new one, independent of the original's etymology. This type, however, is relatively rare. Another approach is to essentially replace the character with a piece of it, sometimes slightly altered, as in the third and fourth characters. Finally, probably the most common type of simplification is to change one component of the character to reduce the number of strokes and/or make it easier to write, a strategy exemplified by the fifth and sixth examples. Note that, as in the case of the sixth character, the simplification may be very subtle.

In general, old character forms are identical to their traditional Chinese counterparts, but there are some exceptions. For the seventh example character (Шаблон:Nihongo2), the traditional and simplified Japanese versions coexisted as different forms of the same traditional character in Modern Chinese, while in Japan, what is now the new character form was at that time considered a variant and rarely used. And in a few cases, like that of the eighth character (Шаблон:Nihongo2), the old character form has always been considered a rare variant in Modern Chinese. (However, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are actually the formal forms in Middle Chinese and Old Chinese.)

Historical kana usage (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Rekishi-teki kana-zukai)

Historical kana usage is the system of kana (i.e., phonetic character) writing used in Japan before the post-war reforms. More specifically, it is the version of kana orthography standardized in the Meiji Period (since before that time kana usage was not standardized). It is, broadly speaking, based on the pronunciation of Japanese in the Heian Period, the time-frame in which Early Middle Japanese (on which the grammar of classical Japanese is based) was spoken. There are several differences between historical kana usage — which is also referred to as "old kana usage" (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kyū kana-zukai) — and the modern kana orthography, called "modern kana usage" (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Gendai kana-zukai) or "new kana usage" (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Shin kana-zukai). Some of these differences apply primarily to Sino-Japanese readings of Chinese characters, while others apply primarily to native Japanese words, and still others apply equally to both groups of words.

Broadly speaking, the differences are:

H-Row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ha-gyō) rule

Some examples follow (old spellings are on the left, new spellings on the right; kana in parentheses represent the pronunciation of the preceding character):[6][7][8][9] Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear Шаблон:Fs interlinear

There are some exceptions to this sound change, although they are rare. They include Шаблон:Nihongo2 (haha "mother", expected form Шаблон:Nihongo2 hawa), Шаблон:Nihongo2 (hoho "cheek", expected form Шаблон:Nihongo2 hō), Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ahiru "domestic duck", expected form Шаблон:Nihongo2 airu), and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (afure-ru "overflow", expected form Шаблон:Nihongo2 aore-ru or Шаблон:Nihongo2 ōre-ru. Sometimes, as in the case of the first two exceptions, the sound change form exists, usually with a slightly different meaning (Шаблон:Nihongo2 hawa is a hyper-formal and very respectful term for mother) or is used in different contexts (Шаблон:Nihongo2 hō is generally used in isolation, while Шаблон:Nihongo2 hoho is generally used in compounds). In other cases, as is true of the second two exceptions, the unchanged form is the only one that exists. In addition to these exceptions, some dialects may preserve these sounds as they were at any stage of the language.

W-row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Wa-gyō) rule

This section uses Nihon-shiki romanization for Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, and Шаблон:Nihongo2.

Some examples:

Native Japanese words

Sino-Japanese words

There are no known exceptions (besides the aforementioned ones regarding Шаблон:Nihongo2 wo) in standard Japanese, and no dialects preserve the distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, and/or Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, but some of the Ryukyuan languages (which are also descended from Proto-Japonic) do.

D-row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Da-gyō) rule

This section uses Nihon-shiki romanization for Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2.

Some examples:

Native words

Sino-Japanese words

Loanwords

  • Шаблон:Nihongo2 (radio → razio "radio") (this one is especially notable because it is an exceedingly rare example of a sound change that occurs in a loanword from English)

There are no known exceptions in standard Japanese pronunciation, although there are many dialects (such as the Tosa dialect) that preserve the distinction between historical Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in speech, usually by using Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA for historical Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA for historical Шаблон:IPA (see Yotsugana). In writing, the distinction is preserved in single morphemes in cases where a sequence Шаблон:Nihongo2 (chidi) or Шаблон:Nihongo2 (tsudu) was historically produced by rendaku (such as in Шаблон:Nihongo2 chidim-u, "shorten", and Шаблон:Nihongo2 tsuduk-u, "continue", pronounced as if Шаблон:Nihongo2 chizim-u and Шаблон:Nihongo2 tsuzuk-u, respectively), or in compounds where a phonemic Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA has been voiced to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (such as in Шаблон:Nihongo2 mi-dika "one's surroundings" and Шаблон:Nihongo2 kana-dukai "kana usage", pronounced as if Шаблон:Nihongo2 mi-zika and Шаблон:Nihongo2 kana-zukai, respectively). This usage is a holdover from this rule.

Y-row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ya-gyō) rule

In modern Japanese, the small kana Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ya, yu, and yo) are used to indicate palatalized consonants (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Yōon) when following an I-column (Шаблон:Nihongo2 I-dan) kana of the K-, G-, N-, B-, P-, M-, or R-rows (Шаблон:Nihongo2; Ka-, Ga-, Na-, Ba-, Pa-, Ma-, Ra-gyō). For example:

When a small Y-row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ya-gyō) kana follows an I-column kana of the S-, Z-, T-, D-, or H-rows (Шаблон:Nihongo2; Sa-, Za-, Ta-, Da-, Ha-gyō), the preceding consonant is changed:

These three kana cannot follow A-row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 A-gyō) or W-row (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Wa-gyō) kana in this way.

In historical kana, all of these examples are written with large kana Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ya, yu, and yo). So the previous examples would be written:

This is the only historical kana rule that does not reflect a historical pronunciation. It is also one of only two rules (along with the geminate rule) that create ambiguity for the reader (excluding the exceptions listed above for the H-row rule). For instance, the aforementioned word Шаблон:Nihongo2 (kyaku) is not differentiated in historical kana from the word Шаблон:Nihongo2 (kiyaku "agreement") when written in historical kana: both are written Шаблон:Nihongo2 (kiyaku).

Geminate (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Sokuon) rule

The other use of small kana in modern Japanese is in the geminate consonant mark (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Sokuon), Шаблон:Nihongo2, which is a small version of Шаблон:Nihongo2 (tsu). In native Japanese words, this symbol can be used before kana of the K-, S-, T-, and P-rows. For example,

Voiced geminates are generally prohibited by Japanese phonological rules, but they occur in a few loanwords (although they are sometimes pronounced by native speakers as if they were their voiceless counterparts). For example:

Kana of the N- and M-rows can also be geminate, but they are preceded by Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n) to indicate gemination instead.

Gemination can occur in Japanese for a variety of reasons. In native words, it occurs either when a historical long vowel elides, as in the aforementioned Шаблон:Nihongo2 (massugu, originally Шаблон:Nihongo2 maasugu), or randomly, as in the aforementioned Шаблон:Nihongo2 (kitto, originally Шаблон:Nihongo2 kito). These examples of the geminate consonant marker, along with those found in loanwords, are written with large Шаблон:Nihongo2 (tsu) in historical kana. Therefore,

In these cases, the historical usage is not reflecting any historical pronunciation. However, in Sino-Japanese words, geminate consonants are produced by different, more regular processes, and the historical usage for these words reflects historical pronunciations.

The most common way for geminates to be produced in Sino-Japanese words is by the elision of a vowel from the kana Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, or Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ki, ku, chi, or tsu). For example:

In historical kana, where the geminate mark is used in the first, second, and fourth examples, a full-sized version of the original kana is used. However, in the third example, Шаблон:Nihongo2 (tsu) is used, even though an Шаблон:IPA has been elided. The reason for this is that in Early Middle Japanese, when these sounds were borrowed from Middle Chinese, the Japanese language acquired a final Шаблон:IPA in the Sino-Japanese morphemes that currently end in Шаблон:Nihongo2 (chi, Шаблон:IPA) or Шаблон:Nihongo2 (tsu, Шаблон:IPA). Later on, these acquired two forms, one with Шаблон:IPA and one with Шаблон:IPA (although in syllables beginning with Шаблон:IPA, one form usually begins with Шаблон:IPA, as is the case with Шаблон:Nihongo2). So the semantic difference between Sino-Japanese syllables ending in Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA is almost always trivial, and the historical pronunciation was identical, so they were not distinguished in writing. Therefore, the previous examples would be written:

Occasionally, gemination may also result from a loss of a vowel after Шаблон:Nihongo2 (fu, originally Шаблон:IPA). These cases are complicated by the H-row rule, and perhaps because of that, are also written with Шаблон:Nihongo2 in historical kana. For example,

is written

in historical kana.

While this usage does reflect a historical pronunciation, it, like the Y-row rule, produces ambiguity. Furthermore, since these vowels are elided in some compounds but not others, this usage obscures the difference in a way that is essentially impossible to predict.

While there are a few other processes that can cause geminates in Sino-Japanese words, they all apply to N- and M-row kana, and are not written differently in historical and modern kana.

Labialized consonant (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Gōyōon) rule

Starting in Early Middle Japanese, as more and more Chinese characters were borrowed into Japanese, the language acquired consonants fronted with glides. Those fronted with the palatal glide are described in the Y-row rule, but Early Middle Japanese also introduced consonants fronted with labial glides (i.e., CwV). These were far more limited in range than their palatal counterparts, however, affecting only the K- and G- rows. instead of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA for the vowels of onset, like the palatal glides, the vowels of onset for the labial glides were Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA, and used the kana Шаблон:Nihongo2, Шаблон:Nihongo2, and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (wa, wi, and we). Finally, while the palatal glides are written with an I-column kana, the labial glides are written with a U-column (Шаблон:Nihongo2 U-dan) kana. However, when historical kana was standardized in the Meiji Period, only the syllables with historical Шаблон:IPA were indicated. Nevertheless, some classical texts may indicate the other differences, and some resources will refer to them, so it is useful to be familiar with them. This rule applies exclusively to Sino-Japanese words. Some examples:

Шаблон:Nihongo2 (written kuwa, but pronounced kwa) and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (written guwa, but pronounced gwa) (indicated in standard historical kana)

Шаблон:Nihongo2 (written kuwi, but pronounced kwi), Шаблон:Nihongo2 (written guwi, but pronounced gwi), Шаблон:Nihongo2 (written kuwe, but pronounced kwe), and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (written guwe but pronounced gwe) (not indicated in standard historical kana)

Labialized consonants sometimes occur in modern loanwords, and they are generally dealt with in one of two ways. Firstly, the labialized consonant may be changed from a sequence Шаблон:IPA to a sequence Шаблон:IPA, both in writing and in speech. For example,

In other cases, they may be indicated with a U-column kana followed by a small A-row kana, indicating a labialized consonant. For example,

However, in these cases, an alternative version with large A-row kana generally exists (as it does in this case), indicating a monophthong pronunciation, and many speakers use the monophthong pronunciation regardless of how it is written.

There are no known exceptions to this rule, but some dialects (such as the Kagoshima dialect) preserve the distinction.

Long vowel (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Chōon) rule

Palatalized long vowel (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kaiyōchōon) rule

Classical auxiliary verb Шаблон:Nihongo2 (mu) rule

Modern Japanese has the moraic nasal Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n), which can represent a variety of sounds depending on what sounds come before and after it. Syllable final nasals are believed by many scholars to have existed in Proto-Japonic, but all agree that they were lost by the time of Old Japanese. They first re-appeared in Early Middle Japanese, with the introduction of Middle Chinese loanwords ending in -n and -m. Therefore, the majority of occurrences of Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n) in modern Japanese occur in Sino-Japanese vocabulary. Originally, syllabic n and m were phonemically and phonologically distinct, although the distinction was never written down, and was lost by Early Modern Japanese. For example,

However, some native Japanese words also have Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n). This happens exceedingly rarely, and usually results from sound elision. An exhaustive list of every example out of all regular-use characters with the syllabic nasal in their native Japanese readings numbers only 13 characters (0.61% of the regular-use set) giving rise to 14 readings. They are

From the elision of a vowel following /m/ or /n/

From the elision of a full mora

From the preservation of an Old Japanese pre-nasalized consonant in a modern Japanese word

From abbreviation of another pronunciation on this list

From multiple processes

From some semantic (rather than phonetic) process

Of course, there are also some words with this sound that either lack Chinese characters or were coined in the modern or Early Modern Japanese eras, when Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n) had been fully incorporated into the language. For example,

Regardless of how it came to be, the Japanese orthography lacked the character Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n) or any equivalent. Therefore, until the spelling reforms of 1900, Шаблон:Nihongo2 (mu) was generally used to represent the syllabic nasal. Sometimes, this convention may be preserved by modern writers, but standard historical kana distinguishes Шаблон:Nihongo2 (mu) from Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n).

There is one exception. In classical Japanese, there is an auxiliary verb (Шаблон:Nihongo2 jodōshi) Шаблон:Nihongo2 (mu) which indicated the volitional. It, too, underwent vowel elision, and came to be pronounced as Шаблон:IPA and then Шаблон:IPA. However, the conventions of standard historical kana call for this auxiliary verb (and any word derived from it) to be written with Шаблон:Nihongo2 (mu) even though they are pronounced as Шаблон:Nihongo2 (n).

Since Шаблон:Nihongo2 (mu) is non-existent in modern Japanese, there are no dialects that preserve the distinction expressed in this rule. However, some may preserve the distinction between final Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

Miscellaneous

Two other significant differences involve the way that kana are used in general, rather than which kana are used. The first is that Chinese characters in classical texts are often fully marked with ruby text (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Furigana), especially in old laws and other very important documents. Ruby text is still widely used in modern Japanese, but only for characters with non-standard or ambiguous pronunciations, or sometimes in materials designed for children or foreigners. The second difference is that, especially in legal documents, Katakana were often used in the way that Hiragana are used in modern Japanese, to write out adjective and verb inflections, suffixes, and particles (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Okurigana), and for the aforementioned ruby text.

Finally, kana iteration marks were far more common in classical Japanese, and sometimes used in ways that are considered completely obsolete in modern Japanese.

For an example of a major document written in the classical style, see as an example the original text of the 1890 Meiji Constitution, which is written in classical Japanese using historical kana, old character forms, kana iteration marks, and Katakana in place of Hiragana (although it lacks universal ruby text).

Grammar

Verbs (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Dōshi)

Conjugation table

Classical Japanese has the following verb classes and stem forms:

Inflectional form = (stem) + Inflectional suffix

Inflectional Class

Шаблон:Lang

Inflectional form

Шаблон:Lang

Translation
stem
Шаблон:Lang 		Irrealis
Шаблон:Lang 		Infinitive
Шаблон:Lang 		Conclusive
Шаблон:Lang 		Attributive
Шаблон:Lang 		Realis
Шаблон:Lang 		Imperative
Шаблон:Lang
Quadrigrade
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-a) Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-e) 'hear'
Upper Monograde
Шаблон:Lang 		– Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (m-iru) Шаблон:Lang (-ire) Шаблон:Lang (-i[yo]) 'see'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (-wi) Шаблон:Lang (-wiru) Шаблон:Lang (-wire) Шаблон:Lang (-wiyo) 'use'
Lower Monograde
Шаблон:Lang 		– Шаблон:Lang (-e) Шаблон:Lang (-eru) Шаблон:Lang (-ere) Шаблон:Lang (-e[yo]) 'kick'
Upper Bigrade
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-uru) Шаблон:Lang (-ure) Шаблон:Lang (-iyo) 'pass'
Lower Bigrade
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (-e) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-uru) Шаблон:Lang (-ure) Шаблон:Lang (-e[yo]) 'receive'
K-irregular
Шаблон:Lang 		– Шаблон:Lang (-o) Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-uru) Шаблон:Lang (-ure) Шаблон:Lang (-o) 'come'
S-irregular
Шаблон:Lang 		– Шаблон:Lang (-e) Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-uru) Шаблон:Lang (-ure) Шаблон:Lang (-e[yo]) 'do'
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (-se) Шаблон:Lang (-si) Шаблон:Lang (-su) Шаблон:Lang (-suru) Шаблон:Lang (-sure) Шаблон:Lang (-seyo) 'set the date'
N-irregular
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (-a) Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-uru) Шаблон:Lang (-ure) Шаблон:Lang (-e) 'die'
R-irregular
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang (-a) Шаблон:Lang (-i) Шаблон:Lang (-u) Шаблон:Lang (-e) 'be, exist'

Note that most S-irregular is the combination of a noun and Шаблон:Lang; for example, Шаблон:Lang is a combination of the noun Шаблон:Lang ('date') and Шаблон:Lang.

The Шаблон:Nihongo2 (yo) at the end of the imperative forms is optional in classical Japanese, although exceedingly common.

Verb class distribution

While the many conjugation classes may seem overwhelming, most of them contain few verbs. The quadrigrade and lower bigrade classes are the primary, containing about 75% and 20% of the verbs in the language, respectively. The upper bigrade class is small (about 56 non-compound verbs), but sizable enough to make an exhaustive list difficult. The other 6 classes all together contain between 22 and 28 verbs, depending on whether basic compound verbs are included or not. An exhaustive list of these follows, with verbs in the conclusive form, as is the most common standard. Chinese character pronunciations are indicated by hiragana in parentheses following the given character. The first spelling listed for a given verb is the most common, and those that follow are alternative spellings. Some of these spellings are generally used for slightly different connotations of the same verb, while others are simple alternatives. In later reference, only the first spelling (in pre-World War II orthography) will be used, and the transcription will be based on the historical spelling. A blank cell in one (or both) of the "modern" columns indicates that the modern spelling and/or transcription is the same as the pre-World War II version.

Japanese (Pre-World War II orthography) Japanese (Modern orthography) Romanization (Pre-World War II orthography) Romanization (Modern orthography) Translation
Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Kami ichidan katsuyō dōshi "Upper monograde conjugation class verbs")
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ki-ru To wear
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ni-ru To resemble
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ni-ru To boil
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Hi-ru To sneeze
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Hi-ru To dry
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Hi-ru To winnow
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Mi-ru To go around
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Mi-ru To see
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kagami-ru To learn from
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kaherimi-ru Kaerimi-ru To reflect upon
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Kokoromi-ru To try
Шаблон:Nihongo2 I-ru To shoot (an arrow)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 I-ru To douse (with water)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 I-ru To cast (metal)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Wi-ru I-ru To sit
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Wi-ru I-ru To carry (constantly)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Hikiwi-ru Hikii-ru To lead (an army)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Mochiwi-ru Mochii-ru To use
Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Shimo ichidan katsuyō dōshi "Lower monograde conjugation class verbs")
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ke-ru To kick
Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Ka-gyō henkaku dōshi "K-irregular verbs")
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 K-u To come
Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Sa-gyō henkaku katsuyō dōshi "S-irregular conjugation class verbs")
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 S-u To do
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ohas-u Owas-u To be/go/come (honorific form)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Na-gyō henkaku katsuyō dōshi "N-irregular conjugation class verbs")
Шаблон:Nihongo2 In-u To go away
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Shin-u To die
Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Ra-gyō henkaku katsuyō dōshi "R-irregular conjugation class verbs")
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Ar-i To exist
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Imasukar-i To exist (honorific form)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Haber-i To serve (humble form)
Шаблон:Nihongo2 Шаблон:Nihongo2 Wor-i Or-i To be
Table notes

Note that these translations are glosses, and may not reflect certain nuances or rare alternative meanings.

In addition, the translations are for the classical meaning of the verb, which may differ from the modern meaning of the verb if it has survived into modern Japanese either slightly (e.g., Шаблон:Nihongo2 ki-ru, which meant "to wear [in general]" in classical Japanese, but means "to wear [from the waist up]" in modern Japanese), or significantly (e.g., Шаблон:Nihongo2 wi-ru, which meant "to sit" in classical Japanese, but primarily means "to be" (for animate objects) in modern Japanese). Some may have the same meaning, but a different pronunciation (e.g., Шаблон:Nihongo2 kagami-ru "to learn from", which is generally pronounced and written Шаблон:Nihongo2 kangami-ru in modern Japanese). Also, even for those verbs which have survived with the same meaning and form, many are archaic and rarely used in modern Japanese (e.g., Шаблон:Nihongo2 hi-ru "to sneeze", with the same modern meaning and form, but almost never used). On the other hand, some have kept the same meaning, form, and prominence into the modern language (e.g., Шаблон:Nihongo2 mi-ru "to see", one of the oldest surviving verbs in the language and also one of the most common, both in classical and modern texts).

Шаблон:Nihongo2 (imasukar-i "to exist", honorific form) has three pronunciation variants, each of which can use either Chinese character: Шаблон:Nihongo2 (imasugar-i), Шаблон:Nihongo2 (imasokar-i), and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (imasogar-i).

Finally, the "modern" transcriptions are purely orthographic. For example, the modern version conclusive form of the classical verb Шаблон:Nihongo2 (k-u "to come") is Шаблон:Nihongo2 (k-uru), but the modern form is given in the table as Шаблон:Nihongo2 (k-u), which is the way that a modern Japanese writer would write the classical Japanese word, rather than the way they would write the modern Japanese word.

Adjectives (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Keiyōshi)

Classical Japanese has the following classes of adjectives and stem forms:

Class of

Inflection

subclass stem
Шаблон:Lang 		Irrealis
Шаблон:Lang 		Adverbial
Шаблон:Lang 		Conclusive
Шаблон:Lang 		Attributive
Шаблон:Lang 		Realis
Шаблон:Lang 		Imperative
Шаблон:Lang 		Translation
-ku
Шаблон:Lang 		main
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang) Шаблон:Lang (-ku) Шаблон:Lang (-si) Шаблон:Lang (-ki) Шаблон:Lang (-kere)   'be high'
-kari
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang (-kara) Шаблон:Lang (-kari) Шаблон:Lang (-karu)   Шаблон:Lang (-kare)
-siku
Шаблон:Lang 		main
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang) Шаблон:Lang (-siku) Шаблон:Lang (-si) Шаблон:Lang (-siki) Шаблон:Lang (-sikere)   'be beautiful'
-kari
Шаблон:Lang 		Шаблон:Lang (-sikara) Шаблон:Lang (-sikari) Шаблон:Lang (-sikaru)   Шаблон:Lang (-sikare)
Table notes

The existence of irrealis form is still a controversy. Some scholars assume that the ancient construction called Шаблон:Nihongo2 (Ku-gohō "Ku-grammar") uses the irrealis form to form nouns from verbs and adjectives; e.g., Шаблон:Nihongo2 (yasu-shi "peaceful") → Шаблон:Nihongo2 (yasu-ke) + Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ku) → Шаблон:Nihongo2 (yasukeku "peace of mind"). Meanwhile, others assumed the construction Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-kuba) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shikuba) appears to be an irrealis form Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ku) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shiku) + particle Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ba) (since that particle usually attaches to the irrealis form). However, the scholars agreeing with "Ku-grammar theory" argue that it's actually Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ku) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shiku) + particle Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ha; modern pronunciation wa) with a sequential voicing sound change from Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ha) to Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ba).

The compound forms are derived from continuitive form Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ku) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shiku) + Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ar-i) → Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-kuar-i) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shikuar-i), which then became Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-kar-i) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shikar-i) by regular sound change rules from Old Japanese. The forms then follow the R-irregular conjugation type like Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ar-i), but lack the conclusive form.

Similarly, the basic conjugations have no imperative form. When it is used, therefore, the Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-kar-e) / Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-shikar-e) forms are used. It is however, relatively rare, even in classical Japanese.

Adjectival verbs (Шаблон:Nihongo2 Keiyō dōshi)

There are the following classes for adjectival verbs:

Class of

inflection

stemШаблон:Lang IrrealisШаблон:Lang AdverbialШаблон:Lang ConclusiveШаблон:Lang AttributiveШаблон:Lang RealisШаблон:Lang ImperativeШаблон:Lang Translation
Nari

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang(-nara) Шаблон:Lang(-nari) Шаблон:Lang(-nari) Шаблон:Lang(-naru) Шаблон:Lang(-nare) 'be static'
Шаблон:Lang(-ni)
Tari

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang(-tara) Шаблон:Lang(-tari) Шаблон:Lang(-tari) Шаблон:Lang(-taru) Шаблон:Lang(-tare) ''be quiet, soft"
Шаблон:Lang(-to)
Table notes

Adjectival verbs are essentially nouns(or stems of the adjectives) combined with an auxiliary verb, either Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-nar-i) or Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-tar-i).

Most tari-adjectival nouns are derived from Sino-Japanese vocabulary. For example,「Шаблон:Lang」 is derived from 「Шаблон:Lang」, a Chinese word meaning “quietly, softly”.

The auxiliary verbs are derived from directional particles Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ni) + Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ar-i) and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (to) + Шаблон:Nihongo2 (-ar-i), respectively, yielding Шаблон:Nihongo2 (niar-i) and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (toar-i), respectively, which then lead to Шаблон:Nihongo2 (nar-i) and Шаблон:Nihongo2 (tar-i), respectively, by regular sound change rules. They therefore follow the R-irregular conjugation like Шаблон:Nihongo2 (ar-i).

As with adjectives, the imperative form is rare, but is used.

Miscellaneous

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

The particle Шаблон:Nihongo2 is omitted more often than in the spoken style.

Шаблон:Fs interlinear

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Notefoot

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:Japanese language

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Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Komai, Akira. (1983) "Classical Japanese" Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan Volume 1 pp.321–322.
  3. ↑ Árokay, Judit. (2014) "Discourse on Poetic Languages in Early Modern Japan and the Awareness of Linguistic Change" Divided Languages? eds. Judit Árokay, Jadranka Gvozdanović, and Darja Miyajima p.88.
  4. ↑ Neustupny, JV. (1983) "Gembun Itchi" Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan Volume 3 p.16.
  5. ↑ Trantor, Nicholas and Kizu, Mika. (2012) "Modern Japanese" The Languages of Japan and Korea ed. Nicolas Trantor p.268.
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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