Английская Википедия:Climate of Peru
Climate of Peru describes the diverse climates of this large South American country with an area of Шаблон:Cvt. Peru is located entirely in the tropics but features desert and mountain climates as well as tropical rainforests. Elevations above sea level in the country range from Шаблон:Cvt and precipitation ranges from less than Шаблон:Cvt annually to more than Шаблон:Cvt. There are three main climatic regions: the Pacific Ocean coast is one of the driest deserts in the world but with some unique features; the high Andes mountains have a variety of microclimates depending on elevation and exposure and with temperatures and precipitation from temperate to polar and wet to dry; and the Amazon basin has tropical climates, mostly with abundant precipitation, along with sub-tropical climates in elevations above Шаблон:Cvt.
Pacific coastal desert
The coastal desert of Peru extends unbroken from near the northern border with Ecuador to the southern border with Chile, a north to south distance of Шаблон:Cvt. Three names are sometimes applied to the desert in different parts of the coastline. The Sechura Desert is in northern Peru. Southward is the Peruvian coastal desert which becomes at an indefinite location the Atacama Desert which continues into Chile.
The Sechura is warmer and less impacted by the cloud cover that characterizes the more southern parts of the coastal desert, but there is a uniformity in precipitation along the entire coastline with less than Шаблон:Cvt annually. The desert strip along the Pacific is narrow, at its widest about Шаблон:Cvt before the land climbs into the Andes and precipitation increases with elevation.Шаблон:Citation needed
The following table summarizes climatic statistics for cities in the north, central, and southern parts of the coastal desert
| Location | Latitude | Average annual temp. | Hottest month(s) | Coolest month(s) | Annual precipitation | Wettest month(s) | Climate (Köppen ) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Talara | 4.58° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (February, March) | Шаблон:Cvt (August) | Шаблон:Cvt | February – Шаблон:Cvt | BWh |
| Lima | 12.05° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (February) | Шаблон:Cvt (August) | Шаблон:Cvt | July, August, September – Шаблон:Cvt | BWh |
| Tacna | 18.01° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (February) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | August – Шаблон:Cvt | BWk |
A characteristic of the Peruvian coastal desert is low average temperatures despite its tropical latitudes. In the tropics the average annual temperature is usually at least Шаблон:Cvt with little temperature variation among months. By contrast most of the Peruvian coastal desert has average annual temperatures of less than Шаблон:Cvt and with temperatures falling to or near Шаблон:Cvt during the Southern Hemisphere's winter.[2][1] The relatively low temperatures of the Peruvian coastal desert are caused by the cold Humboldt Current. Ocean water temperatures in Lima in September, the coldest month, are as low as Шаблон:Cvt similar to water temperatures near Los Angeles during its winter months.[3][4]
The cold waters of the Humboldt Current also create a moist fog called garúa in Peru. The cold water, especially in the Southern Hemisphere's winter from May to November, cause an inversion, the air near the ocean surface being cooler than the air above, contrary to most climatic situations. During the Southern Hemisphere's winter, the trade winds blow thick stratus clouds inland over coastal areas up to an elevation of Шаблон:Cvt and the dense fog coalesces into drizzle and mist. In the Southern Hemisphere's summer from December to April, the weather is mostly sunny.[5]
The moisturizing impact of the fog is increased by the high average humidity of the coastal deserts. For example, Lima has an average humidity of 84 percent, more than double the average humidity of most deserts.[6] As a result of the fog, Lima gets only 1,230 hours of sunshine annually, and less than 50 hours each in the months of July, August, and September.[7] By contrast, Seattle, not noted for its sunny weather, receives 2,170 hours of sunshine annually[8] and "foggy London town" receives 1,618 hours.[9]
As elevation increases moving inland from Lima and other coastal locations, so also does precipitation. Chosica, Шаблон:Cvt inland from the Pacific at an elevation of Шаблон:Cvt gets Шаблон:Cvt annually of precipitation compared to Lima's precipitation of Шаблон:Cvt. Matucana, Шаблон:Cvt inland at an elevation of Шаблон:Cvt gets Шаблон:Cvt of precipitation.[10]
Apart from the irrigated agriculture in 57 river valleys coming down from the Andes and passing through the desert en route to the ocean,[11] the coastal desert is almost without vegetation. In a few favored locations, where mountains come close to the sea and the fog condenses on the mountain slopes, the garúa permits vegetation to thrive in "fog oases," called lomas in Peru. Lomas range in size from very small to more than Шаблон:Cvt and their flora includes many endemic species. Scholars have described individual lomas as "an island of vegetation in a virtual ocean of desert."[12] Peru has more than 40 lomas totalling in area less than Шаблон:Cvt out of a total coastal desert area of Шаблон:Cvt.[13]
Andean highlands
The chain of mountains called the Andes, comprising 28 percent of the national territory, runs the length of Peru, a narrow Шаблон:Cvt wide at the Ecuadorian border in the north and Шаблон:Cvt wide in the south along the border with Bolivia. The Andes, with elevations almost entirely above Шаблон:Cvt and mostly above Шаблон:Cvt, rise above the desert to the west and the tropical rain forest to the east.Шаблон:Citation needed The mountain climates are cool, often cold, with varied precipitation depending upon exposure. In general the western slopes of the Andres, facing the Pacific Ocean, are drier than the eastern slopes. Beginning at latitude 8.64° S and continuing southward are many snow-capped and glaciated peaks more that Шаблон:Cvt in elevation. Thirty-seven mountain peaks in Peru rise to more than Шаблон:Cvt in elevation.[14][15]
A general rule for mountainous areas is that temperature decreases by about Шаблон:Cvt for each Шаблон:Cvt increase in elevation provided that the change in altitude takes place at the same latitude and other factors such as precipitation and cloud cover are similar.[16] The temperature decline with increasing elevation is less than the average on the Pacific coast side of the Andes because of the unusually low temperature of the fog-bound coast. The steep slopes and the sharp changes in elevation result in a large number of microclimates in which a change of location of a few kilometres can result in major climatic changes. The common precipitation regime of the Andes is a rainy summer season from October to April and a dry winter from May to September.[15] Snow is common at elevations of more than Шаблон:Cvt. The city of Puno at that elevation has snow 14 days per year on average and it has snowed in every month of the year except November.[17] Puno experiences freezing temperatures an average of 226 mornings annually, with freezes occurring in every month[18] and the permanent snow line is at about Шаблон:Cvt.[19]
The following table summarizes climatic statistics for cities in the Andes mountain region.
| City | Latitude | Elevation | Average annual temp. | Warmest month | Coolest month | Annual precipitation | Wettest month | Climate (Köppen ) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arequipa | 16.40° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (January) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (February) | BWk |
| Cajamarca | 7.16° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (January) | Шаблон:Cvt June) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (March) | Cwb |
| Cusco | 13.52° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (November) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (January) | Cwb |
| Huánuco | 9.93° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (November) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (February) | Bsh |
| Puno | 15.84° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (November) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (January) | ET |
The indigenous peoples of Peru have been farming in the Andes for thousands of years despite the severe climatic limitations. Compensating for the lack of a freeze-free growing season at elevations above Шаблон:Cvt, indigenous farmers up until the 21st century have sought out microclimates and used techniques such as andenes (terraces) and Waru Waru (raised beds) to capture and store heat and permit hardy crops such as potatoes to grow up to Шаблон:Cvt in elevation.[20] Llamas and alpacas are grazed on the sparse vegetation of the puna zone up to elevations of Шаблон:Cvt.[21]
Amazon rainforest
The Amazon rainforest region comprises about 60 percent of the total area of Peru and is characterized, as is the coast, by its climatic uniformity: hot average temperatures with little variation among the seasons and abundant precipitation. While there are locations that fit into all three of the Köppen tropical types of climate, Af, Am, and Aw, the differences among the three climates in Peru are small. The true tropical rainforest (Af) climate requires at least Шаблон:Cvt precipitation in all months of the year. Pucallpa (Am) has only one month that falls below that threshold; Puerto Esperanza (Aw) has three months below the Af threshold. The driest months are in the Southern Hemisphere's winter of June through August.[1]
The dividing line between the Amazon and Andean climates is uncertain, but depends mostly on elevation. Temperatures become cooler with elevation and around Шаблон:Cvt elevation the climate becomes sub-tropical rather than tropical, a climate often characterized as "eternal spring." In Oxapampa, Cfb under the Köppen classification, temperatures rarely fall below Шаблон:Cvt or rise above Шаблон:Cvt and rain is abundant year-round. A few locations at elevations similar to Oxapampa have a pronounced dry season and are classified as Cwb (sub-tropical highland with a dry winter), rather than Cfb.[22][1]
The following table summarizes climatic statistics for cities and towns in the Amazon rainforest region.
| City | Latitude | Elevation | Average annual temp. | Warmest month | Coolest month | Annual precipitation | Wettest month | Climate (Köppen) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Iquitos | 3.75° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (October, November) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (March) | Af |
| Oxapampa | 10.57° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (October, January, February) | Шаблон:Cvt July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (March) | Cfb |
| Pucallpa | 8.38° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (November) | Шаблон:Cvt (June) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (November) | Am |
| Esperanza | 9.77° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (October) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (January) | Aw |
| Quince Mil | 13.23° S | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (October) | Шаблон:Cvt (July) | Шаблон:Cvt | Шаблон:Cvt (January) | Af |
While Quince Mil has the highest precipitation of places in Peru with a weather station, climatologists say that the slopes of low mountains northwest of Quince Mil in Manu National Park may receive more than Шаблон:Cvt of rain annually.[23]
El Niño
El Niño (the "boy child") and La Niña (the "girl child") are the manifestations of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation which influences weather around the world, but especially near the coasts of northern Peru and southern Ecuador. The warm phase, El Niño, occurs every two to seven years. Ocean temperatures on the coast of Peru increase by as much as Шаблон:Cvt during the Southern Hemisphere's summer, beginning about Christmas, the name El Niño referring to the birth of Jesus. El Niño brings warmer and sunnier weather to the coasts of Peru than normal. In especially impactful years, as occurred in 1982–1983, 1997–1998, and 2015–2017,[24] El Niño causes heavy rainfall in coastal northern Peru in what is a desert that rarely receives any rain at all. Floods and landslides (huaycos) are the consequence; the warm water reduces fishing catches; and the southern Andes of Peru suffer reduced precipitation.[25]
Climate change
Climatic statistics cited in this article are for the period 1982-2012 and may become inaccurate in the future because of climate change and global warming.[26] Average annual temperatures rose by Шаблон:Cvt from 1960 until 2016 and are predicted to increase by an additional Шаблон:Cvt by 2065. Sea level is projected to rise by Шаблон:Cvt by 2100. Extreme weather events, including drought and flood, are anticipated to become more frequent.[27]
The most immediately visible problem of climatic change in Peru is the melting of glaciers in the Andes. Peru is home to 71 percent of the world's tropical glaciers and since 1970 glacial volume has decreased by 40 percent. Many areas of Peru depend upon glacial melt for water for consumption, irrigation, and industry. In the Cordillera Blanca, for example, glacial melt provides 80 percent of water in the rivers during the dry season and 4-8 percent during the rainy season. The consequence of increased glacial melt is floods during the wet season and less water in rivers during the dry season. The desert coast of Peru has 52 percent of Peru's population on 12 percent of its land area[15] and is especially vulnerable to fluctuations in its water supply, nearly all of which comes from rivers originating in the Andes. Accelerated glacial melt and the eventual disappearance of glaciers will severely impact the quantity of water available in the coastal and mountain regions.[27]
The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) estimates that economic losses related to climate change for Peru could reach over 15% of national gross domestic product (GDP) by 2100.[28] Being a large country with a long coastline, snow-capped mountains and sizeable forests, Peru's varying ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to climate change. Several mountain glaciers have already begun to retreat, leading to water scarcity in some areas. In the period between 1990 and 2015, Peru experienced a 99% increase in per capita carbon emissions from fossil fuel and cement production, marking one of the largest increases amongst South American countries.[29]
Peru brought in a National Strategy on Climate Change in 2003. It is a detailed accounting of 11 strategic focuses that prioritize scientific research, mitigation of climate change effects on the poor, and creating Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) mitigation and adaptation policies.[30]
In 2010, the Peruvian Ministry of Environment published a Plan of Action for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change.[31] The Plan categorises existing and future programmes into seven action groups, including: reporting mechanisms on GHG emissions, mitigation, adaptation, research and development of technology of systems, financing and management, and public education. It also contains detailed budget information and analysis relating to climate change.
In 2014, Peru hosted the Twentieth Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC COP20) negotiations.[32] At the same time, Peru enacted a new climate law which provides for the creation of a national greenhouse gas inventory system called INFOCARBONO.[33] According to the Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP), INFOCARBONO is a major transformation of the country's greenhouse gas management system. Previously, the system was under the sole control of the Peruvian Ministry of the Environment. The new framework makes each relevant ministry responsible for their own share of greenhouse gas management.
References
Шаблон:Peru topics Шаблон:South America topic
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Rundel, P. W., Dillion, M.O., Palma, B., Mooney, H.A., Gulmon, S. L., and Ehleringer, J. R., "The Phytogeography and Ecology of the Coastal Atacama and Peruvian Deserts," In Aliso. (1 ed., Vol. 13, pp. 1-49)
- ↑ Lima, Peru. Weatherbase, accessed 17 July 2016
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Pozorski, Shelia and Pozorski, Thomas, (2006a) Early Settlement and Subsistence in the Casma Valley, Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, pp 1-2. Downloaded from Project MUSE
- ↑ Dillon, Michael O., "The Solanaceae of the Lomas Formations of Coastal Peru and Chile," www.sacha.org/solanaceae/lomas_solanaceae.pdf, accessed 17 July 2017
- ↑ South America, Site SA43, Lomas Formations of the Atacama Desert, Chile and South America, Site SA42, Lomas Formations, Peru", accessed 16 July 2016
- ↑ Peruvian Instituto Geografico Militar 1:100, 000 map series published in Lima, various dates from 1950's to present, Sheets 18-h, 19-h, 19-i, 20-i, 21-j, 27-q, 28-t, 28-u, 30-y, 31-q, 32-q, 32-s and 33-s cover the 6000m peaks of Peru.
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ 27,0 27,1 Шаблон:Cite web
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