Английская Википедия:Cobalt-60

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Файл:60Co gamma spectrum energy-de.svg

γ-ray spectrum of cobalt-60

Cobalt-60 (⁶⁰Co) is a synthetic radioactive isotope of cobalt with a half-life of 5.2714 years.Шаблон:NUBASE2020Шаблон:Rp It is produced artificially in nuclear reactors. Deliberate industrial production depends on neutron activation of bulk samples of the monoisotopic and mononuclidic cobalt isotope Шаблон:SimpleNuclide. Measurable quantities are also produced as a by-product of typical nuclear power plant operation and may be detected externally when leaks occur. In the latter case (in the absence of added cobalt) the incidentally produced Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is largely the result of multiple stages of neutron activation of iron isotopes in the reactor's steel structures via the creation of its Шаблон:SimpleNuclide precursor. The simplest case of the latter would result from the activation of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide. Шаблон:SimpleNuclide undergoes beta decay to the stable isotope nickel-60 (Шаблон:SimpleNuclide). The activated cobalt nucleus emits two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 MeV, hence the overall equation of the nuclear reaction (activation and decay) is: Шаблон:Nuclide + n → Шаблон:Nuclide → Шаблон:Nuclide + e⁻ + 2 γ

Activity

Corresponding to its half-life, the radioactive activity of one gram of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is Шаблон:Convert. The absorbed dose constant is related to the decay energy and time. For Шаблон:SimpleNuclide it is equal to 0.35 mSv/(GBq h) at one meter from the source. This allows calculation of the equivalent dose, which depends on distance and activity.

For example, a Шаблон:SimpleNuclide source with an activity of 2.8 GBq, which is equivalent to 60 μg of pure Шаблон:SimpleNuclide, generates a dose of 1 mSv at one meter distance within one hour. The swallowing of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide reduces the distance to a few millimeters, and the same dose is achieved within seconds.

Test sources, such as those used for school experiments, have an activity of <100 kBq. Devices for nondestructive material testing use sources with activities of 1 TBq and more.

The high γ-energies correspond to a significant mass difference between Шаблон:SimpleNuclide and Шаблон:SimpleNuclide of 0.003 u. This amounts to nearly 20 watts per gram, nearly 30 times larger than that of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide.

Decay

Файл:Cobalt-60m-decay.svg

The decay scheme of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide and Шаблон:SimpleNuclide.

The diagram shows a (simplified) decay scheme of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide and Шаблон:SimpleNuclide. The main β-decay transitions are shown. The probability for population of the middle energy level of 2.1 MeV by β-decay is 0.0022%, with a maximum energy of 665.26 keV. Energy transfers between the three levels generate six different gamma-ray frequencies. In the diagram the two important ones are marked. Internal conversion energies are well below the main energy levels.

Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is a nuclear isomer of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide with a half-life of 10.467 minutes. It decays by internal transition to Шаблон:SimpleNuclide, emitting 58.6 keV gamma rays, or with a low probability (0.22%) by β-decay into Шаблон:SimpleNuclide.

Applications

The main advantage of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is that it is a high-intensity gamma-ray emitter with a relatively long half-life, 5.27 years, compared to other gamma ray sources of similar intensity. The β-decay energy is low and easily shielded; however, the gamma-ray emission lines have energies around 1.3 MeV, and are highly penetrating. The physical properties of cobalt such as resistance to bulk oxidation and low solubility in water give some advantages in safety in the case of a containment breach over some other gamma sources such as caesium-137. The main uses for Шаблон:SimpleNuclide are:

• As a tracer for cobalt in chemical reactions
• Sterilization of medical equipment.
• Radiation source for medical radiotherapy. Cobalt therapy, using beams of gamma rays from Шаблон:SimpleNuclide teletherapy machines to treat cancer.
• Radiation source for industrial radiography.
• Radiation source for leveling devices and thickness gauges.
• Radiation source for pest insect sterilization.
• As a radiation source for food irradiation and blood irradiation.

Cobalt has been discussed as a "salting" element to add to nuclear weapons, to produce a cobalt bomb, an extremely "dirty" weapon which would contaminate large areas with Шаблон:SimpleNuclide nuclear fallout, rendering them uninhabitable. In one hypothetical design, the tamper of the weapon would be made of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide. When the bomb exploded, the excess neutrons from the nuclear fission would irradiate the cobalt and transmute it into Шаблон:SimpleNuclide. No country is known to have done any serious development of this type of weapon. Шаблон:Multiple image

Production

There is no natural Шаблон:SimpleNuclide in existence on earth; thus, synthetic Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is created by bombarding a Шаблон:SimpleNuclide target with a slow neutron source. Californium-252,Шаблон:Citation needed moderated through water, can be used for this purpose, as can the neutron flux in a nuclear reactor. The CANDU reactors can be used to activate Шаблон:SimpleNuclide, by substituting the control rods with cobalt rods. In the United States, as of 2010, it is being produced in a BWR at Hope Creek Nuclear Generating Station. The cobalt targets are substituted here for a small number of fuel assemblies. Still, over 40% of all single-use medical devices are sterilized using Шаблон:Chem from Bruce nuclear generating station.

Шаблон:SimpleNuclide + n → Шаблон:SimpleNuclide

Safety

After entering a living mammal (such as a human being), some of the Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is excreted in feces. The remainder is taken up by tissues, mainly the liver, kidneys, and bones, where the prolonged exposure to gamma radiation can cause cancer. Over time, the absorbed cobalt is eliminated in urine.

Steel contamination

Cobalt is an element used to make steel. Uncontrolled disposal of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide in scrap metal is responsible for the radioactivity found in several iron-based products.

Circa 1983, construction was finished of 1700 apartments in Taiwan which were built with steel contaminated with cobalt-60. Approximately 10,000 people occupied these buildings during a 9–20 year period. On average, these people unknowingly received a radiation dose of 0.4 Sv. This large group did not suffer a higher incidence of cancer mortality, as the linear no-threshold model would predict, but suffered a lower cancer mortality than the general Taiwan public.Шаблон:Dubious These observations appear to be compatible with the radiation hormesis model.

In August 2012, Petco recalled several models of steel pet food bowls after US Customs and Border Protection determined that they were emitting low levels of radiation. The source of the radiation was determined to be Шаблон:SimpleNuclide that had contaminated the steel.

In May 2013, a batch of metal-studded belts sold by online retailer ASOS were confiscated and held in a US radioactive storage facility after testing positive for Шаблон:SimpleNuclide.

Incidents involving medical radiation sources

A radioactive contamination incident occurred in 1984 in Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, originating from a radiation therapy unit illegally purchased by a private medical company and subsequently dismantled for lack of personnel to operate it. The radioactive material, Шаблон:SimpleNuclide, ended up in a junkyard, where it was sold to foundries that inadvertently smelted it with other metals and produced about 6,000 tons of contaminated rebar. These were distributed in 17 Mexican states and several cities in the United States. It is estimated that 4,000 people were exposed to radiation as a result of this incident.

In the Samut Prakan radiation accident in 2000, a disused radiotherapy head containing a Шаблон:SimpleNuclide source was stored at an unsecured location in Bangkok, Thailand and then accidentally sold to scrap collectors. Unaware of the dangers, a junkyard employee dismantled the head and extracted the source, which remained unprotected for a period of days at the junkyard. Ten people, including the scrap collectors and workers at the junkyard, were exposed to high levels of radiation and became ill. Three of the junkyard workers subsequently died as a result of their exposure, which was estimated to be over 6 Gy. Afterward, the source was safely recovered by Thai authorities.

In December 2013, a truck carrying a disused 111 TBq ⁶⁰Co teletherapy source from a hospital in Tijuana to a radioactive waste storage center was hijacked at a gas station near Mexico City. The truck was soon recovered, but the thieves had removed the source from its shielding. It was found intact in a nearby field. Despite early reports with lurid headlines asserting that the thieves were "likely doomed", the radiation sickness was mild enough that the suspects were quickly released to police custody, and no one is known to have died from the incident.

Parity

Шаблон:Main In 1957, Chien-Shiung Wu et al. discovered the β-decay process violated parity, implying nature has a handedness. In the Wu experiment, the researchers aligned radioactive Шаблон:SimpleNuclide nuclei by cooling the source to low temperatures in a magnetic field. Wu's observation was that more β-rays were emitted in the opposite direction to the nuclear spin. This asymmetry violates parity conservation.

Suppliers

Argentina, Canada, India and Russia are the largest suppliers of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide in the world. Both Argentina and Canada have (as of 2022) an all-heavy-water reactor fleet for power generation. Canada has the CANDU in numerous locations throughout Ontario as well as Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station in New Brunswick, while Argentina has two German-supplied heavy water reactors at Atucha nuclear power plant and a Canadian-built CANDU at Embalse Nuclear Power Station. India has a number of CANDU reactors at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station used for production of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide. India had a capacity of more than 6 MCi of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide production in 2021; this capacity is slated to increase in subsequent years with more CANDU reactors being commissioned at the Rajasthan Atomic Power Station. Heavy-water reactors are particularly well suited for the production of Шаблон:SimpleNuclide because of their excellent neutron economy and because their capacity for online refueling allows targets to be inserted into the reactor core and removed after a predetermined time without the need for cold shutdown. Furthermore, the heavy water used as a moderator is commonly held at lower temperatures than is the coolant in light water reactors, allowing for a lower speed of neutrons, which increases the neutron cross section and decreases the rate of unwanted (n,2n) "knockout" reactions.

In popular culture

Шаблон:SimpleNuclide is the material encasing a missile nuclear warhead in the 1970 film Beneath the Planet of the Apes.

See also

• Cobalt bomb
• Harold E. Johns

External links

• Cobalt-60, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
• NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Cobalt, Radioactive
• Beta decay of Cobalt-60, HyperPhysics, Georgia State University.
• Шаблон:Cite web