Английская Википедия:Colloquial Welsh morphology
Шаблон:Short description The morphology of the Welsh language has many characteristics likely to be unfamiliar to speakers of English or continental European languages like French or German, but has much in common with the other modern Insular Celtic languages: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Cornish, and Breton. Welsh is a moderately inflected language. Verbs inflect for person, number, tense, and mood, with affirmative, interrogative, and negative conjugations of some verbs. There is no case inflection in Modern Welsh.
Modern Welsh can be written, and spoken, in several levels of formality, for example colloquial or literary,[1][2] as well as different dialects. The grammar described in this article is for Colloquial Welsh, which is used for speech and informal writing. Literary Welsh is closer to the form of Welsh used in William Morgan's 1588 translation of the Bible and can be seen in formal writing. It does not reflect the spoken language presented here.
Initial consonant mutation
Initial consonant mutation is a phenomenon common to all Insular Celtic languages, although there is no evidence of it in the ancient Continental Celtic languages of the first millennium AD; nor was there any evidence of this in the Insular Celtic languages around the 500s.
The first consonant of a word in Welsh may change when preceded by certain words (e.g. Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang), or because of some other grammatical context (such as when the grammatical object follows a conjugated verb). Welsh has three mutations: the soft mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy), the nasal mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy), and the aspirate mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy; also called spirant mutation in some grammars). These are also represented in the orthography:
| Radical Шаблон:Lang |
Soft Шаблон:Lang |
Nasal Шаблон:Lang |
Aspirate Шаблон:Lang |
|---|---|---|---|
| p Шаблон:IPA | b Шаблон:IPA | mh Шаблон:IPA | ph Шаблон:IPA |
| t Шаблон:IPA | d Шаблон:IPA | nh Шаблон:IPA | th Шаблон:IPA |
| c Шаблон:IPA | g Шаблон:IPA | ngh Шаблон:IPA | ch Шаблон:IPA |
| b Шаблон:IPA | f Шаблон:IPA | m Шаблон:IPA | |
| d Шаблон:IPA | dd Шаблон:IPA | n Шаблон:IPA | |
| g Шаблон:IPA | Шаблон:IPA* | ng Шаблон:IPA | |
| m Шаблон:IPA | f Шаблон:IPA | ||
| ll Шаблон:IPA | l Шаблон:IPA | ||
| rh Шаблон:IPA | r Шаблон:IPA | ||
| ts Шаблон:IPA | j Шаблон:IPA |
Шаблон:Col-end *Soft mutation causes initial Шаблон:IPA to be deleted. For example, Шаблон:Lang "garden" becomes Шаблон:Lang "the garden"; or Шаблон:Lang "work" becomes Шаблон:Lang "his work".
A blank cell indicates no change.
The mutation Шаблон:Lang reflects a change heard in modern words borrowed from English. Borrowed words like Шаблон:Lang (chips) can often be heard in Wales and the mutated form Шаблон:Lang is also common. Шаблон:Lang (I'm going to get chips); Шаблон:Lang (I have chips). Despite this the 'ts' → 'j' mutation is not usually included in the classic list of Welsh mutations and is rarely taught in formal classes. Nevertheless, it is a part of the colloquial language and is used by native, first-language speakers.
The word for "stone" is Шаблон:Lang, but "the stone" is Шаблон:Lang (soft mutation), "my stone" is Шаблон:Lang (nasal mutation) and "her stone" is Шаблон:Lang (aspirate mutation). These examples represent usage in the standard language; there is some regional and idiolectal variation in colloquial usage. In particular, the soft mutation is often used where nasal or aspirate mutation might be expected on the basis of these examples.[3]
Mutation is not triggered by the form of the preceding word; the meaning and grammatical function of the word are also relevant. For example, while Шаблон:Lang meaning "in" triggers nasal mutation, homonyms of Шаблон:Lang do not. For example:
- In the sentence Шаблон:Lang ("There is plastic in Siaco's nose") Шаблон:Lang has undergone nasal mutation.
- In the sentence Шаблон:Lang ("Siaco's nose is plastic" ) Шаблон:Lang has undergone soft mutation, not nasal mutation.
- In the sentence Шаблон:Lang ("Siaco's nose contains plastic") Шаблон:Lang is not mutated.
Soft mutation
The soft mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy) is by far the most common mutation in Welsh. When words undergo soft mutation, the general pattern is that unvoiced plosives become voiced plosives, and voiced plosives become fricatives or disappear; some fricatives also change, and the full list is shown in the above table.
In some cases a limited soft mutation takes place. This differs from the full soft mutation in that words beginning with Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang do not mutate.
Common situations where the limited soft mutation occurs include:
- Feminine singular nouns after the definite article (Шаблон:Lang), e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'the war', not *Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang 'the windpipe', not *Шаблон:Lang.
- Feminine nouns following the numeral Шаблон:Lang (one), e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'one war', not *Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang 'one windpipe', not *Шаблон:Lang.
- Nouns or adjectives used predicatively or adverbially after Шаблон:Lang.
- Adjectives following Шаблон:Lang ("so"), Шаблон:Lang ("too") or Шаблон:Lang ("fairly, very").
Common situations where the full soft mutation occurs are as follows – this list is by no means exhaustive:
- Qualifiers (adjectives, nouns, or verb-nouns) used to qualify feminine singular nouns, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'a big cat' [< Шаблон:Lang]; Шаблон:Lang 'a singing girl' [< Шаблон:Lang].
- Words immediately following the prepositions Шаблон:Lang ("for"), Шаблон:Lang ("on"), Шаблон:Lang ("to"), Шаблон:Lang ("under"), Шаблон:Lang ("over"), Шаблон:Lang ("through"), Шаблон:Lang ("without"), Шаблон:Lang ("until"), Шаблон:Lang ("by"), Шаблон:Lang ("by, near, beside, with"), Шаблон:Lang ("to"), Шаблон:Lang ("of, from") - this does not mean there is a one-to-one correspondence between Welsh and English prepositions!
- Nouns following the number two (Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang)
- Nouns following adjectives (N.B. most adjectives follow the noun); i.e. Шаблон:Lang 'old man' (from Шаблон:Lang 'man').
- Nouns after the possessive adjectives Шаблон:Lang (informal/singular 'your') and Шаблон:Lang ('his').
- An object of a conjugated verb.
- The second element in many compound words, i.e. Шаблон:Lang from Шаблон:Lang ('parish') + Шаблон:Lang ('Mary').
- Verb-nouns following an indirect object, i.e. Шаблон:Lang ('I must go').
- Inflected verbs in the interrogative and negative (also frequently, in the spoken language, the affirmative), though this should strictly be the 'mixed mutation'.
The occurrence of the soft mutation often obscures the origin of placenames to non-Welsh-speaking visitors. For example, Шаблон:Lang is the church of Шаблон:Lang (Mary), and Шаблон:Lang is the bridge on the Tawe (Шаблон:Wikt-lang Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang).
Nasal mutation
The nasal mutation (Welsh: Шаблон:Lang) normally occurs:
- after Шаблон:Lang – generally pronounced as if spelt Шаблон:Lang – ("my") e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("a bed"), Шаблон:Lang ("my bed"), pronounced Шаблон:Lang
- after the locative preposition Шаблон:Lang ("in") e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("Tywyn"), Шаблон:Lang ("in Tywyn")
- after the negating prefix Шаблон:Lang ("un-") e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("fair"), Шаблон:Lang ("unfair").
Notes
1. The preposition Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang if the following noun (mutated or not) begins with m, and becomes Шаблон:Lang if the following noun begins with ng. E.g. Шаблон:Lang ("Bangor"), Шаблон:Lang ("in Bangor"); Шаблон:Lang ("Cardiff"), Шаблон:Lang ("in Cardiff").
2. In words beginning with Шаблон:Lang, the n is dropped before the mutated consonant (except if the resultant mutation allows for a double n), e.g. Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang (although it would be retained before a non-mutating consonant, e.g. Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang).
3. In some dialects the soft mutation is often substituted after Шаблон:Lang giving forms like Шаблон:Lang for "in Cardiff", or it is even lost altogether, especially with place names, giving Шаблон:Lang. This would be considered incorrect in formal registers.
Under nasal mutation, voiced stop consonants become nasals, and unvoiced stops become voiceless nasals. A non-standard mutation also occurs in some parts of North Wales where nasal consonants are also unvoiced, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("my mother"; standard: Шаблон:Lang). This may also occur (unlike the ordinary nasal mutation) after Шаблон:Lang ("her"): e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("her grandmother", standard Шаблон:Lang).
Aspirate mutation
The name aspirate mutation can be misleading as the affected consonants do not become aspirated, but become fricatives. This is represented by the addition of an h after the original initial consonant (c Шаблон:IPA, p Шаблон:IPA, t Шаблон:IPA → ch Шаблон:IPA, ph Шаблон:IPA, th Шаблон:IPA), but the resultant forms are pronounced as single phonemes.
The aspirate mutation occurs:
- after the possessive Шаблон:Lang when it means "her" – Шаблон:Lang 'her dog' (< Шаблон:Lang 'dog')
- after Шаблон:Lang ("and") – Шаблон:Lang 'coffee and cake' (< Шаблон:Lang 'cake')
- after Шаблон:Lang ("with", "by means of") – Шаблон:Lang 'cut with a knife' (< Шаблон:Lang 'knife')
- after Шаблон:Lang ("with") – Шаблон:Lang 'cake with coffee' (< coffi 'coffee')
- for nouns after the masculine numeral three (Шаблон:Lang) – Шаблон:Lang 'three fish(es)' (< Шаблон:Lang 'fish')
- after the number six (Шаблон:Lang, written before a noun as Шаблон:Lang) – Шаблон:Lang 'six children' (< Шаблон:Lang 'child')
Aspirate mutation is the least-used mutation in colloquial Welsh. The only word that it always follows in everyday language is Шаблон:Lang ("her") and it is also found in set phrases, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("more than likely"). Its occurrence is unusual in the colloquial Southern phrase Шаблон:Lang ("that's why") as Шаблон:Lang causes the soft mutation, not aspirate mutation. Colloquially, the aspirate mutation is often replaced by the soft mutation, or ignored all together – particularly mutation of t- and p-; one is likely to hear Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang for 'don't worry'.
Mixed mutation
A mixed mutation occurs when negating conjugated verbs. Initial consonants undergo aspirate mutation if subject to it, and soft mutation if not. For example, Шаблон:Lang ("I heard") and Шаблон:Lang ("I said") are negated as Шаблон:Lang ("I heard nothing") and Шаблон:Lang ("I said nothing"). In practice, soft mutation is often used even when aspirate mutation would be possible (e.g. Шаблон:Lang); this reflects the fact that aspirate mutation is in general infrequent in the colloquial language (see above).
h-Prothesis
Under some circumstances an h is added to the beginning of words that begin with vowels, a process commonly called 'h-prothesis' and usually called pre-vocalic aspiration (PVA) by linguists. This occurs after the possessive pronouns Шаблон:Lang ("her"), Шаблон:Lang ("our") and Шаблон:Lang ("their"), e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("age"), Шаблон:Lang ("her age"). It also occurs with Шаблон:Lang ("twenty") after Шаблон:Lang ("on") in the traditional vigesimal counting system, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("twenty-one", literally "one on twenty").
Although aspirate mutation also involves the addition of h in spelling, the environments for aspirate mutation and initial h addition do not overlap except for Шаблон:Lang ("her").
The article
Indefinite article
Welsh has no indefinite article. This means that indefiniteness is implied by the lack of definite article or determiner. The noun cath, therefore, means both 'cat' and 'a cat'.
English has no plural indefinite article proper, but often uses the word 'some' in place of one: compare "I have an apple" and "I have some apples", where the word 'some' is being used as an article because the English language calls for something in this position, compare "I have apples" and "I have some apples", the former is rarely encountered in English. In these types of English sentences, the word 'some' is therefore left untranslated due to there being no concept of an indefinite article in Welsh: mae gen i afalau ('I have [some] apples').
Definite article
The definite article, which precedes the words it modifies and whose usage differs little from that of English, has the forms Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang. The rules governing their usage are:
- When the previous word ends in a vowel, regardless of the quality of the word following, Шаблон:Lang is used, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("the cat is outside"). This rule takes precedence over the other two.
- When the following word (usually a noun) begins with a vowel, Шаблон:Lang is used, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("the garden").
- In all other places, Шаблон:Lang is used, e.g. Шаблон:Lang ("the boy").
The article triggers the soft mutation when it is used with feminine singular nouns, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "(a) princess" but Шаблон:Lang ("the princess").
The definite article is used in Welsh where it would not be used in English in the following ways:
- To not allow a noun to be indefinite. In an English sentence like I'm going to school, the noun school has no article, but the listener is expected to know which school is being talked about. In Welsh this noun (ysgol) would take the definite article: dw i'n mynd i'r ysgol ('I'm going to school').
- With demonstratives like this and that, which in Welsh are phrases equivalent to English the... here (this) and the... there (that), e.g. y bore 'ma (this morning); y gadair 'na (that chair).
- In certain places where English uses an indefinite article. English phrases like one pound per kilogram / one pound a kilogram replace the indefinite article with the definite article, e.g. un bunt y cilogram.
- In genitive constructions. English can again get away with no article in these phrases, e.g. Town Hall, City Centre. In Welsh these call for use of the definite article, e.g. Neuadd y Dref (Town Hall, lit. "hall of the town"); Canol y Ddinas (City Centre, lit. "centre of the city").
Nouns
As in most other Indo-European languages, all nouns belong to a certain grammatical gender; the genders in Welsh are masculine and feminine. A noun's gender usually conforms to its referent's natural gender when it has one (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'mother' is grammatically feminine), but otherwise there are no major patterns (except that, as in many languages, certain noun suffixes show a consistent gender, as sometimes do nouns referring to certain classes of thing, e.g. all months of the year in Welsh are masculine) and gender must simply be learnt.
Welsh has two systems of grammatical number. Singular/plural nouns correspond to the singular/plural number system of English, although unlike English, Welsh noun plurals are unpredictable and formed in several ways, i.e. the plural form cannot be discerned simply by its singular form. Most nouns form the plural with a suffix (the most common, by far, is Шаблон:Lang), e.g. Шаблон:Lang. Others form the plural through vowel change (a process known as affection in Celtic languages), e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'boy / boys'. Still others form their plurals through some combination of the two, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'sister / sisters'.
A few nouns also display a dual number, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'hand', Шаблон:Lang '(two) hands', though Шаблон:Lang also has the general plural Шаблон:Lang. The dual Шаблон:Lang comes from combining Шаблон:Lang with the feminine numeral Шаблон:Lang 'two'; Шаблон:Lang is only used to refer to the hands of a single person, else Шаблон:Lang is used, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'your hands', Шаблон:Lang 'your hands', Шаблон:Lang 'my hands', Шаблон:Lang 'our hands', but Шаблон:Lang 'people have hands'. Шаблон:Lang is used for 'a period of two months' and Шаблон:Lang is 'a period of two days', these using Шаблон:Lang rather than Шаблон:Lang.[4]
Welsh also has a special 'plural' for 'a period of three days', Шаблон:Lang which is commonly used across Wales.[4]
The other system of grammatical number is the collective/singulative. The nouns in this system form the singulative by adding the suffix Шаблон:Lang (for masculine nouns) or Шаблон:Lang (for feminine nouns) to the collective noun. Most nouns which belong in this system are frequently found in groups, for example, Шаблон:Lang "children" and Шаблон:Lang "a child", or Шаблон:Lang "trees" and Шаблон:Lang "a tree". In dictionaries, the collective form, being the root form, is given first.
Adjectives
Adjectives normally follow the noun they qualify, while a few, such as hen, pob, annwyl, and holl ("old", "every", "dear", "whole") precede it. For the most part, adjectives are uninflected, though there are a few with distinct masculine/feminine or singular/plural forms. After feminine singular nouns, adjectives receive the soft mutation.
Adjective comparison in Welsh is fairly similar to the English system. Adjectives with one or two syllables receive the endings Шаблон:Lang "-er" and Шаблон:Lang "-est", which change final b, d, g into p, t, c by provection, e. g. Шаблон:Lang "fair", Шаблон:Lang "fairer", Шаблон:Lang "fairest". Adjectives with two or more syllables use the words Шаблон:Lang "more" and Шаблон:Lang "most", e. g. Шаблон:Lang "sensitive", Шаблон:Lang "more sensitive", Шаблон:Lang "most sensitive". Adjectives with two syllables can go either way. There is an additional degree of comparison, the equative, meaning "as ... as ...".
These are the possessive adjectives:
Singular Translation Plural Translation First Person Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang my Шаблон:Lang our Second Person Шаблон:Lang your, thy Шаблон:Lang your Third Person Шаблон:Lang his, her, its Шаблон:Lang their
The possessive adjectives precede the noun they qualify, which is often followed by the corresponding form of the personal pronoun, e.g. Шаблон:Lang "my bread", Шаблон:Lang "your bread", Шаблон:Lang "his bread", etc. The corresponding pronoun is often dropped in the spoken language, fy mara (my bread), dy fara (your bread), ei fara (his bread) and ei bara (her bread).
The possessive adjective Шаблон:Lang is most often heard as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang followed by the mutated noun. For example, Шаблон:Lang ('bread') would likely be heard as Шаблон:Lang ('my bread').
The demonstrative adjectives are yma "this"' and yna "that" (this usage derives from their original function as adverbs meaning "here" and "there" respectively). When used in this context they are almost always shortened to Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. They follow the noun they qualify, which also takes the article. For example, Шаблон:Lang "the book", Шаблон:Lang "this book", Шаблон:Lang "that book"; literally the book here and the book there.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
The Welsh personal pronouns are:
Singular Plural First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Masculine Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Feminine Шаблон:Lang
The Welsh masculine-feminine gender distinction is reflected in the pronouns. There is, consequently, no word corresponding to English "it", and the choice of Шаблон:Lang (south and north Welsh respectively) or Шаблон:Lang depends on the grammatical gender of the antecedent.
The English dummy or expletive "it" construction in phrases like "it's raining" or "it was cold last night" also exists in Welsh and other Indo-European languages like French, German, and Dutch, but not in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Indo-Aryan or Slavic languages. Unlike other masculine-feminine languages, which often default to the masculine pronoun in the construction, Welsh uses the feminine singular Шаблон:Lang, thus producing sentences like:
- Шаблон:Lang
- It's raining.
- Шаблон:Lang
- It was cold last night.
However, colloquially the pronoun is often omitted when it would be translated as "it" in English, leaving:
- Шаблон:Lang
- It's raining.
- Шаблон:Lang
- It was cold last night.
Notes on the forms
Third-person masculine singular forms Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are heard in parts of mid- and north Wales, while Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are heard in parts of mid-, west and south Wales.
The pronoun forms Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang are used as subjects after a verb. In the inflected future of the verbs Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang, first-person singular constructions like Шаблон:Lang may be heard. Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang are also used as objects with compound prepositions, for example Шаблон:Lang 'in front of him'. Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang are used after conjunctions and non-inflected prepositions, and also as the object of an inflected verb:
- Шаблон:Lang
- Did you see him over the weekend?
Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang exclusively are used as subjects with the inflected conditional:
- Шаблон:Lang
- He ought to buy you a new one.
Both Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang are heard with inflected prepositions, as objects of verbal nouns, and also as following pronouns with their respective possessive adjectives:
- Шаблон:Lang
- Have you seen him today?
- Шаблон:Lang
- I can't find my keys.
The use of first-person singular Шаблон:Lang is limited in the spoken language, appearing in Шаблон:Lang "to/for me" or as the subject with the verb Шаблон:Lang, used in a preterite construction.
Шаблон:Lang is found most often as the second-person singular pronoun, however Шаблон:Lang is used as the subject of inflected future forms, as a reinforcement in the imperative, and as following pronoun to the possessive adjective Шаблон:Lang "your ..."
Шаблон:Lang vs. Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Further Шаблон:Lang, in addition to serving as the second-person plural pronoun, is also used as a singular in formal situations, as is in French and Russian. Conversely, Шаблон:Lang can be said to be limited to the informal singular, such as when speaking with a family member, a friend, or a child. This usage corresponds closely to the practice in other European languages. An alternative form of Шаблон:Lang, used almost exclusively in some north-western dialects, is Шаблон:Lang;[5][6] as an independent pronoun it occurs especially frequently after a vowel sound at the end of the phrase (e.g. Шаблон:Lang).[5]
Reflexive pronouns
The reflexive pronouns are formed with the possessive adjective followed by Шаблон:Lang "self". There is variation between North and South forms. The first person singular possessive pronoun fy is usually pronounced as if spelt Шаблон:Lang.
Singular Plural North First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang South First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
There is no gender distinction in the third person singular.
Emphatic pronouns
Welsh has special emphatic forms of the personal pronouns.
The term 'emphatic pronoun' is misleading since they do not always indicate emphasis. They are perhaps more correctly termed 'conjunctive, connective or distinctive pronouns' since they are used to indicate a connection between or distinction from another nominal element. For example, 'minnau' may on occasion be best translated 'I/me, for my part'; 'I/me, on the other hand', 'I/me, however', or even simply 'I/me'. Full contextual information is necessary to interpret their function in any given sentence.
Singular Plural First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Masculine Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Feminine Шаблон:Lang
The emphatic pronouns can be used with possessive adjectives in the same way as the simple pronouns are used (with the added function of distinction or connection).
Demonstrative pronouns
While the singular demonstrative pronouns this and that have separate forms for masculine and feminine, there is only a single plural form in each case (these, those). This is consistent with a general principle in Welsh that gender is not marked in the plural. The latter forms are also often used for intangible, figurative, or general ideas (though cf. also the use of 'hi' discussed above).
Masculine Feminine Intangible this Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang that Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang these Шаблон:Lang those Шаблон:Lang
In certain expressions, Шаблон:Lang may represent "now" and Шаблон:Lang may represent "then".
Verbs
In Colloquial Welsh, the majority of tenses and moods make use of an auxiliary verb, usually Шаблон:Lang "to be" or gwneud "to do". The conjugation of bod is dealt with in Irregular Verbs below.
There are five periphrastic tenses in Colloquial Welsh which make use of Шаблон:Lang: present, imperfect, future, and (less often) pluperfect; these are used variously in the indicative, conditional and (rarely) subjunctive. The preterite, future, and conditional tenses have a number of periphrastic constructions, but Welsh also maintains inflected forms of these tenses, demonstrated here with Шаблон:Lang 'pay' (pluperfect conjugation is rarely found beyond the verb 'bod').
Шаблон:Lang — 'to pay' Singular Plural Preterite First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Future First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Conditional First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
- Notes on the preterite:
- First and second singular forms may in less formal registers be written as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, though there is no difference in pronunciation since there is a basic rule of pronunciation that unstressed final syllables alter the pronunciation of the /ai/ diphthong.
- Word-final -f is rarely heard in Welsh. Thus verbal forms in -af will be pronounced as if they ended in /a/ and they may be written thus in lower registers.
- In some parts of Wales -s- may be inserted between the stem and plural forms.
- In some dialects, forms like Шаблон:Lang are heard for Шаблон:Lang.
- Notes on the future:
- Шаблон:Lang is used instead of Шаблон:Lang, thus Шаблон:Lang, not *Шаблон:Lang.
- Forms like Шаблон:Lang may appear instead of Шаблон:Lang in some southern parts of Wales.
- The future was formerly also used as an inflected present. A small amount of frozen forms use the future forms as a present habitual: mi godaf i am ddeg o'r gloch bob bore - I get up at ten o' clock every morning
- Notes on the conditional:
- -s- or, -as, may be inserted between the stem and endings in the preterite and conditional (thus overlapping with the pluperfect in the latter case).
Questions are formed by effecting soft mutation on the verb (the effect of the interrogative particle 'a', often elided in speech and informal writing), though increasingly the soft mutation is being used in all situations. Negative forms are expressed with ddim after the pronoun and the mixed mutation, though here the soft mutation is taking over in informal registers (Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang).
Irregular verbs
Шаблон:Lang and compounds
Bod 'to be' is irregular. In addition to having inflected forms of the preterite, future, and conditional, it also maintains inflected present and imperfect forms which are used frequently as auxiliaries with other verbs. Bod has separate conjugations for (a) affirmative and (b) interrogative and negative forms of the present indicative (there are also further variations in the third person singular, in the context of dependent clauses). The apparent high irregularity of this tense can be simplified and rationalised by tracing back the divergences to the standard formal written forms: e.g. 'dyw e ddim' and 'dydy e ddim' or 'dydi o ddim' (he is not) can all be seen as informal variants of 'nid ydyw ef (ddim)'.
The present tense in particular shows divergence between north and southern dialects. Though the situation is undoubtedly more complicated, King (2003) notes the following variations in the present tense as spoken (not as written according to the standard orthography):
Affirmative (I am) Interrogative (Am I?) Negative (I am not) Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural North First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person —, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang South First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang, — Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person —, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang — Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Affirmative (I am) Interrogative (Am I?) Negative (I am not) Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Preterite First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Imperfect First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Future First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang also has a conditional, for which there are two stems:
Affirmative Interrogative Negative Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Шаблон:Lang First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
- Шаблон:Lang ("not") is added after the subject for negative forms of Шаблон:Lang
- There are many dialectal variations of this verb.
- Colloquially the imperfect tense forms are Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang. These are used for the declarative, interrogative and negative.
- In speech the future and conditional forms often receive the soft mutation in all situations.
- Welsh and other Celtic languages are unusual among the European languages in having no fixed words for "yes" and "no" (although many speakers do use 'ie' and 'na' in ways that mimic English usage). If a question has a verb at its head, the relevant part of that verb is used in the answer e.g.: Шаблон:Lang (Are you liking coffee? = Do you like coffee?) then either Шаблон:Lang (I am = I do = Yes) or Шаблон:Lang (I am not = I do not = No)
A few verbs which have Шаблон:Lang in the verbnoun display certain irregular characteristics of Шаблон:Lang itself. Шаблон:Lang is the most irregular of these. It has preterite and conditional forms, which are often used with present and imperfect meaning, respectively. The present is conjugated irregularly:
Singular Plural First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
The common phrase Шаблон:Lang "I don't know" uses a special negative form of the first person present. The initial d- in this form originates in the negative particle Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang. Such a development is restricted to a very small set of verb forms, principally this form of Шаблон:Lang and various forms of Шаблон:Lang (e.g., Шаблон:Lang, from Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang respectively)."
Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang
The four verb-nouns Шаблон:Lang "to go", Шаблон:Lang "to do", Шаблон:Lang "to get", and Шаблон:Lang "to come" are all irregular in similar ways.
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Preterite First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Future First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
The forms Шаблон:Lang often appear as Шаблон:Lang in writing, and in places in Wales these are also heard in speech.
In the conditional, there is considerable variation between the North and South forms of these four irregular verbs. That is partly because the North form corresponds to the Middle Welsh (and Literary Welsh) imperfect indicative, while the South form corresponds to the Middle Welsh (and Literary Welsh) imperfect subjunctive.
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural North First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang South First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Prepositions
Prepositions are words like on, at, to, from, by and for in English.[7] They often describe a relationship, spatial or temporal, between persons and objects.[7] For example, 'the book is on the table'; 'the table is by the window'.
There are approximately two-dozen or so simple prepositions in modern colloquial Welsh. While some have clear-cut and obvious translations (heb ‘without’), others correspond to different English prepositions depending on context (i, wrth, am). As with all areas of modern Welsh, some words are preferred in the North and others in the South.
The main prepositions used in modern colloquial Welsh are:[7] Шаблон:Col-begin Шаблон:Col-2
- â
- am
- ar
- at
- cyn
- [o] dan (tan)
- dros (tros)
- efo (hefo)
- gan
- ger
- gyda
- heb
- hyd
- i
- mewn
- o
- oddiar (oddi ar)
- oddiwrth (oddi wrth)
- rhag
- rhwng
- tan
- trwy (drwy)
- tua
- wrth
- yn
Шаблон:Col-end Most of these (but not all) share the following characteristics:[7]
- they cause mutation of the following word
- they inflect for person and number, similar to verbs
- they can be used with a following verbal noun
Inflected prepositions
When used with a personal pronoun, most prepositions insert a linking syllable before the pronoun. This syllable changes for each preposition and results in an inflection pattern similar to that found in Welsh verbs. Broadly speaking, the endings for inflected prepositions are as follows:[7]
Singular Plural First Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Second Person Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Third Person Masculine Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Feminine Шаблон:Lang
Notes
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book: "A distinction must first be made between the Colloquial (or Spoken) Welsh in this grammar and Literary Welsh. The difference between these two is much greater than between the virtually identical colloquial and literary forms of English - so great, in fact, that there are good grounds for regarding them as separate languages."
- ↑ For a complete treatment of literary Welsh, see A Grammar of Welsh (1980) by Stephen J. Williams
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 Clic Clic Cymraeg (a Welsh course) Шаблон:Webarchive
- ↑ BBC - Catchphrase: Ysbyty Brynaber
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 7,3 7,4 Шаблон:Cite book
References
- King, G. (2003). Modern Welsh. Oxford: Routledge. Шаблон:ISBN
