Английская Википедия:Congolese rumba
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox music genre Шаблон:Infobox intangible heritage
Congolese rumba, also known as African rumba, is a dance music genre originating from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (formerly French Congo). With its rhythms, melodies, and lyrics, Congolese rumba has gained global recognition and remains an integral part of African music heritage. In December 2021, it was added to the UNESCO list of intangible cultural heritage.[1][2][3]
Emerging in the mid-20th century in the urban centers of Kinshasa and Brazzaville during the colonial era, Congolese rumba originated from a fusion of various musical influences, including Kongolese maringa dance music and Cuban son.[4][5][6] Congolese rumba customarily features lively guitar melodies, groovy basslines, catchy rhythms based on ostinato or looping phrases, and danceable beats.[7][8] The genre's roots can be traced to the 1930s, when African musicians, particularly those from the Congo Basin, incorporated guitar, bottles, and ikembe to perform songs in traditional forms combined with Cuban son.[9][10][11][12][13] This gave rise to soukous, a genre characterized by its lively rhythms, intricate high-pitched guitar melodies, and large brass and polyrhythmic percussion sections.[14]
The style has gained widespread popularity in Africa, reaching countries like Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Zambia, Ivory Coast, Gambia, Nigeria, Ghana, South Sudan, Senegal, Burundi, Malawi, and Namibia. Additionally, it has found a following in Europe, particularly in France, Belgium, Germany, and the UK, as well as the US, as a result of touring by Congolese musicians, who have performed at various festivals internationally. Musicians such as Henri Bowane, Wendo Kolosoy, Franco Luambo Makiadi, Le Grand Kallé, Nico Kasanda, Tabu Ley Rochereau, Sam Mangwana, Papa Noel Nedule, Vicky Longomba, and Papa Wemba have made significant contributions to the genre, pushing its boundaries and incorporating modern musical elements.[15][16][1]
History
Origins
A proposed etymology for the term "rumba" is that it derives from the Kikongo word nkumba, meaning "belly button", denoting the native dance practiced within the former Kingdom of Congo, encompassing parts of the present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, and Angola.[17][18][19] Its rhythmic foundation draws from Bantu traditions, notably the Palo Kongo religion, which traces back to the Kongo people who were unceremoniously transported to Cuba by Spanish settlers in the 16th century.[5][20][21][22]
Miguel Ángel Barnet Lanza's treatise On Congo Cults of Bantu Origin in Cuba explains that the majority of enslaved Africans brought to Cuba were initially of Bantu lineage, although later, the Yoruba from Nigeria became dominant.[23] The musical traditions, dance forms, and spiritual practices were covertly preserved across generations within regions characterized by significant populations of enslaved Africans.[12] Musical instruments like the conga, makuta, catá, yambu, claves, güiro, and cajón de rumba were used to craft a musical dialogue that engaged in call and response with ancestral spirits and the deceased.[24][5] Notable figures like Arsenio Rodríguez blended traditional Bakongo sounds with Cuban son.[22]
Late 1920s–1950s
According to Phyllis Martin's Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville, the popular partnered dance music in the former Belgian Congo and French Congo, which now constitute the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Republic of the Congo, respectively, was known as maringa.[4] Maringa was a Bakongo dance similar to West African highlife and historically practiced within the former Kingdom of Loango, covering areas in the present-day Republic of the Congo, Southern Gabon, and Cabinda.[8] The dance involved a small skin-covered frame drum called patenge for counter-rhythms, a bottle functioning as a triangle, and an accordion known as likembe, with seven to nine steel reeds.[4] The distinctive movements of maringa dancers involved a rhythmic hip sway that shifted body weight alternately from one leg to the other, reminiscent of the Afro-Cuban rumba dance, which later eclipsed older dances and musical forms.[4] The popularity of partnered dancing traversed the Congo region by 1930.[4] Ethnomusicology professor Kazadi wa Mukuna of Kent State University explains that many recording studio proprietors at the time sought to reinterpret the term maringa by infusing it with the new "rumba" rhythm while retaining its original name.[25] In 1934, Jean Réal, a French entertainment director from Martinique, coined the term "Congo Rumba" when he founded an ensemble by that name in Brazzaville.[26][4] Clément Ossinondé, a Congolese musicologist specializing in Congolese music, notes that among the Congolese musicians affiliated with Congo Rumba, Gabriel Kakou and Georges Mozebo were prominent figures instrumental in popularizing Congolese rumba and mentoring emerging local musicians.[27][28][29]
Modern Congolese rumba evolution
By 1937, Réal had refined his arrangements and equipped local musicians with contemporary instruments, leading to substantial advantages for Brazzaville's native artists, including Alphonse Samba, Michel Kouka, Georges Nganga, Côme Batoukama (guitars), Vital Kinzonzi (accordion), Emmanuel Dadet (saxophone, guitar, and more), and Albert Loboko (banjo, piano, guitar).[27][30] Four brass bands were later established in Brazzaville, notably the Fanfare Militaire, the Fanfare de la Milice, the Fanfare Catholique, and the Fanfare Municipale.[31] Dadet and Antoine Kasongo became the first Congolese artists to contemporize Congolese folk music by incorporating new influences into their songs.[31] Dadet became one of the rare homegrown artists proficient in saxophone, clarinet, and guitar simultaneously. Inspired by jazz soloists, he developed a musical style that incorporated diverse instruments, leaning towards "free polyphony".[31] His dance band, "Melo-Congo," gained prominence among the white elites, performing a diverse repertoire ranging from more geriatric waltzes and foxtrots to the contemporary rumba, biguines, and tangos.[4] It significantly contributed to the prominence of local artists like Pierre Mara, Georges Ondaye, Jean-Marie Okoko, Philippe Ngaba, Pierre Kanza, Casimir Bounda, Jean Dongou, Augustin Thony, André Tsimba, Pierre Loemba, Barète Mody, Pascal Kakou, Félix Maleka, and Botokoua. The band enjoyed tremendous success, performing in Poto-Poto at the dance bar PICKUP, then at dance halls like Chez Faignond, Macumba, Beauté Brazza, Chez Ngambali, Mon Pays, and Léopoldville.[31][4][28]
In August 1941, Paul Kamba formed the Victoria Brazza ensemble in Poto-Poto, accompanied by Henri Pali Baudoin, Jacques Elenga Eboma, Jean Oddet Ekwaka, François Likundu, Moïse Dinga, Philippe Moukouami, Paul Monguele, François Lokwa, Paul Wonga, Joseph Bakalé, and Auguste Boukaka.[32] The ensemble's rhythm section incorporated the maringa rhythm and traditional instruments, including a bass drum, a patengé, bells (reminiscent of maracas affixed to hunting dogs), double bells known as ekonga, a likembe, and modern instruments such as an accordion, a guitar, a mandolin, a banjo, and a rackett. This fusion of modern programmable sounds and the intuitive resonance of maringa with non-programmable traditional instruments emerged as a defining characteristic of the "modern Congolese rumba".[32]
In the mid-1940s–50s, the music of Cuban son groups, such as Sexteto Habanero, Trio Matamoros, and Los Guaracheros de Oriente, was played on Radio Congo Belge in Léopoldville, gaining popularity in the country during the following decades.[33][34] Maringa dance music—although unrelated to Cuban rumba—became known as "Congolese rumba", as imported records by Sexteto Habanero and Trio Matamoros were often mislabeled as "rumba".[25] Various artists and groups emerged on the Congolese music scene, with Paul Kamba, Zacharie Elenga, and Antoine Wendo Kolosoy credited as pioneers.[28][4][27][35]
Elenga revolutionized the Congolese rumba rhythm by introducing guitar solos into the musical lineup and instituting a musical training that included a rhythm guitar, a lead guitar, a double bass, a saxophone, and percussion instruments.[36] Meanwhile, Kasongo's Odeon-Kinois orchestra, or Harmonie Kinoise, introduced sebene, which is a successive repetition of a certain number of notes, with an emphasis on the rhythm guitar. Kasongo also produced a series of songs for Olympia Editions.[31][37]
In 1948, Antoine Wendo Kolosoy's chart-topping hit "Marie-Louise", co-written with guitarist Henri Bowane and produced by the Greek Nico Jeronimidis of Ngoma Editions, achieved significant success, selling over two million copies.[36] This established Léopoldville as a hub of Congolese rumba "musical leadership", bolstered by the advent of the recording industry and recording studios operated by priests and record production units affiliated with Greek traders.[36]
In the early 1950s, local artists associated with eclectic Congolese labels owned by white settlers, such as Ngoma, Cognolia, Opika, Loningisa, and CEFA, began producing a similar style of Congolese rumba.[27][28] This style, often characterized by a slower tempo and minimal distinctions between orchestras, included songs like Zacharie Elenga, Antoine Wendo Kolosoy, and Antoine Moundanda's "Paul Kamba Atiki Biso" (1950) and Antoine Moundanda's "Mabele Ya Paulo" (1953), recorded by Ngoma Editions.[27][28][38] These record labels also provided the Belgian Congo a substantial platform for the proliferation and cultivation of homegrown orchestras and bands, such as African Jazz, OK Jazz, Conga Jazz, Negro Band, and Rumbanella Band.[27][28] Although the band names frequently included the word "jazz", Martin notes that "the essential musical inspiration came from African and Latin American roots". The name was used because young men were bedazzled by the American soldiers, especially African Americans, who were based at a military camp in Léopoldville during the Second World War.[4] Scholars such as Isaac A. Kamola of Trinity College and Shiera S. el-Malik of DePaul University suggest that these Congolese "jazz" ensembles exhibited minimal musical affinity with American jazz, interpreting the appropriation as "identification with another culturally vibrant yet politically under-represented population" and that it symbolized a form of modernity that deviated from Eurocentric norms.[39] This hybridity and foreign essence ensured that Congolese rumba did not align exclusively with "any particular tradition, region, or grouping" and allowed "Congolese rumba a broad and shared appeal".[39]
Schools of Congolese rumba
Шаблон:Further information Шаблон:Multiple image
By the mid-1950s, a schism emerged between musicians receptive to foreign influences and those rooted in traditional Congolese rumba. This gave rise to two schools of modern Congolese rumba: the African Jazz School and the OK Jazz School.[40][27] In 1957, these schools made significant advancements to the genre, with OK Jazz embracing a style known as odemba, characterized by a fast tempo and influenced by the odemba rhythm from the Mongo folklore of Mbandaka along the Congo River that later evolved into soukous music. Meanwhile, the African Jazz School introduced "rumba-rock", which had a faster tempo, with jazz and Afro-Cuban "accents in the arrangements".[27][41][40][42][43] African Jazz also introduced tumba drums and electronic instruments in the rhythm of Congolese Rumba.[38]
One of the musical innovations of Franco Luambo's OK Jazz was the mi-solo (meaning "half solo") guitarist, playing arpeggio patterns and filling a role between the lead and rhythm guitars.[44] OK Jazz held sway over the Congolese rumba style until 1959, when Les Bantous de la Capitale was established, ushering in a third musical school that synthesized elements from the preceding two styles.[27][45][46]
1960s–1970s
By early 1960, Congolese rumba was an established genre in most of Central Africa, and it would also impact the music of West and East Africa.[47][48][15] Certain artists who had performed in Franco Luambo and Grand Kalle's bands went on to establish their own ensembles; Tabu Ley Rochereau and Nico Kasanda formed African Fiesta in 1963.[49] Kasanda's faction, including Charles Mwamba Déchaud, went on to create a new ensemble called Docteur Nico and African Fiesta Sukisa, while Rochereau and Roger Izeidi founded African Fiesta National.[50][51] Others, such as Mujos and Depuissant, departed to join different musical collectives.[50] They were joined by Papa Wemba and Sam Mangwana, and classics like "Afrika Mokili Mobimba" made them one of Africa's most prominent bands, with its "loopy-riffing guitars, peculiar drum and bass grooves that lock in while twisting the beat, and horn parts that tell little melodic stories of their own."[52][53][54]
While Congolese rumba influenced bands such as Lipua-Lipua, Veve, OK Jazz, and Bella Bella, younger Congolese artists sought to diminish that influence and embrace a faster-paced soukous style of the OK Jazz School.[55][27] In 1969, a collective of students, spearheaded by Papa Wemba, Jossart N'Yoka Longo, and Félix Manuaku Waku, emerged as Zaïko Langa Langa, introducing a fourth school of Congolese rumba, characterized by an unconventional structure, abrupt movements, and elements described as "jerky and complex in [their] basic contributions".[27][28][56] Clément explains that the group was most influential in the 1970s, popularizing distinctive features such as variations in drum tempo, snare drum usage, sebene (repeated musical note sequences), and an entertainment ensemble comprising atalaku (singing entertainers), a unified choir, a soloist, and soukous "shocked" dance, characterized by intricate body movements.[27][28] Pepe Kalle, a protégé of Grand Kallé, co-founded the band Empire Bakuba with Papy Tex, gaining popularity in Africa with their stripped-down, high-energy rendition of Franco and Rochereau's music.[57]
Ndombolo
Emerging at the end of the 1990s and drawing inspiration from Congolese rumba and soukouss, ndombolo became a popular and danceable fast-paced, hip-swaying dance music in Africa. Defined by its spirited sébéné or "heated part", ndombolo featured vocal entertainment by atalakus and swirling guitar riffs.[58][59][60][61][62][63] Although initiated by Radja Kula in 1995,[64][65] it was notably popularized and refined in the 1990s by Wenge Musica and Koffi Olomide.[66][67][68]
21st century
In December 2021, Congolese rumba was added to the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.[69][70]
Musical examples
The following example is from the Congolese rumba "Passi ya boloko" by Franco (Luambo Makiadi) and O.K. Jazz (c. mid-1950s).[71] The bass is playing a tresillo-based tumbao, typical of son montuno. The rhythm guitar plays all of the offbeats, the exact pattern of the rhythm guitar in Cuban son. According to the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, the lead guitar part "recalls the blue-tinged guitar solos heard in bluegrass and rockabilly music of the 1950s, with its characteristic insistence on the opposition of the major-third and minor-third degrees of the scale."[72]
Banning Eyre distills down the Congolese guitar style to this skeletal figure, where the guide-pattern clave is sounded by the bass notes (notated with downward stems).[73]
In a densely textured seben section of a soukous song (below), the three interlocking guitar parts are reminiscent of the contrapuntal structure of Cuban music, with its layered guajeos.[74]
Women in Congolese rumba
While the genre influence reverberated throughout Africa, the spectacle of female artists taking the stage and expressing their melodic abilities was a rarity. In the 1930s, up-and-coming female vocalists like Nathalie and Emma Louise laid the groundwork for the emergence of female artists in Kinshasa and Brazzaville.[75][1] Despite remaining largely anonymous due to limited documentation, they are regarded as prominent figures in the Congolese music scene.[75] In the 1940s, artists such as Gabrielle Maleka and Anne Mbassou made significant contributions to the evolving sound of Congolese rumba as part of Paul Kamba's Victoria Brazza ensemble.[75] By the 1950s, women singers emerged as powerful voices with momentous messages about amorous entanglements, protection, and ordinary struggles, and successes. Martha Badibala, Tekele Mokango, Anne Ako, Ester Sudila, Léonine Mbongo, Joséphine Sambeya, Jeanne Ninin, and Caroline Mpia became influential in sculpting the genre during this transformative epoch.[75][76][77][78] Marie Kitoto became prominent through her exuberant and mellifluous vocalism in chart-toppers like "Mbokamosika". Meanwhile, Lucie Eyenga distinguished herself in African Jazz through her vocal dexterity and later in the fusion of Rock-a-Mambo and African Jazz.[75]
Throughout the metamorphosing musical terrain, women persistently occupied crucial positions in various studios and record labels. Cameroonian singer Marcelle Ebibi, for instance, introduced electric guitar rhythms to the genre with her opus "Mama é", chaperoned by her fiancé Guy Léon Fylla and Belgian guitarist Bill Alexandre.[75][79][76][80] In the 1970s, Abeti Masikini and her troupe Les Tigresses gained critical acclaim for their performance at the Olympia Hall in Paris in 1973 and Carnegie Hall in New York in June 1974, and sharing the stage with James Brown, Miriam Makeba, Tabu Ley Rochereau, and Franco Luambo in October 1974, during the opening show of the historic Rumble in the Jungle in Kinshasa.[81][82][83][84] Abeti's second album, La voix du Zaire, l’idole de l’Afrique, released in 1975, with hits such as "Likayabo", "Yamba Yamba", "Kiliki Bamba", "Naliku Penda", and "Ngoyaye Bella Bellow", elevated her popularity, especially in West Africa. Her band, Les Redoutables, served as a launching pad for numerous female and male musicians, including M'bilia Bel, Lokua Kanza, and Tshala Muana.[82][81][75]
The 1976 release of M'Pongo Love's song "Pas Possible Mati" is recognized as one of the best female compositions in Congolese rumba.[85] In early 1984, Tshala Muana recorded several albums—Kami, Mbanda Matière, and M'Pokolo—for the Safari Ambiance label. Through her albums and performances, she popularized the mutuashi rhythm, a Luba traditional dance characterized by pronounced hip rotations. Her 1988 single "Karibu Yangu" gained traction across East Africa, fostering the introduction of new female artists such as Faya Tess and Barbara Kanam.[86][87][75][88]
Concurrently, alongside secular Congolese rumba, Christian-infused renditions of the genre emerged as a potent avenue for female expression.[75] Ensembles such as Les Makoma played a pivotal role in establishing the presence of female gospel artists in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including Deborah Lukalu, Sandra Mbuyi, and Dena Mwana.[75]
Influence
Colombian champeta
African music has been popular in Colombia since the 1970s and has had a significant impact on the local musical genre known as champeta.[89][90] In the mid-1970s, a group of sailors introduced records from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nigeria to Colombia, including a plate-numbered 45 RPM titled El Mambote by Congo's l'Orchestre Veve, which gained popularity when played by DJ Victor Conde.[91][92][93][94] Record labels proactively dispatched producers to find African records that would resonate with DJs and audiences. The music gained traction, especially in economically underprivileged urban areas, predominantly inhabited by Afro-Colombian communities, where it was incorporated into sound systems at parties across cities such as Cartagena, Barranquilla, and Palenque de San Basilio.[91]
The emergence of champeta involved replicating musical arrangements by Congolese artists like Nicolas Kasanda wa Mikalay, Tabu Ley Rochereau, M'bilia Bel, Syran Mbenza, Lokassa Ya M'Bongo, Pépé Kallé, Rémy Sahlomon, and Kanda Bongo Man.[93][92] Local artists such as Viviano Torres, Luis Towers, and Charles King, all from Palenque de San Basilio, started composing their own songs and producing unique musical arrangements, while still maintaining the Congolese soukous influence, a derivative of Congolese rumba.[91] They composed and sang in their native language, Palenquero, a creole mix of Spanish and Bantu languages like Kikongo and Lingala.[91][95]
Champeta's sound is intimately intertwined with Congolese rumba, particularly the soukous style, sharing the same rhythmic foundation. The guitar and the use of the Casio brand synthesizer for sound effects are instrumental in shaping champeta's distinct sound.[94]
During the Super Bowl LIV halftime show on 2 February 2020, at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida, Shakira danced to the song "Icha" by the Congolese artist Syran Mbenza, accompanied by several dancers. The track is colloquially known as "El Sebastián" in Colombia. Shakira's performance inspired the #ChampetaChallenge on various social media platforms.[94][96]
Ivorian coupé-décalé
The Congolese rumba dance called ndombolo has significantly impacted coupé-décalé dance music with the incorporation of atalaku, a term referencing animators or hype men who enhance the rhythm and interactivity of performances, into its songs.[97][98][99][100] The first Congolese band to employ atalaku was Zaïko Langa Langa, in the 1980s. In one of their early compositions featuring these animators, the repeated chant "Atalaku! Tala! Atalaku mama, Zekete" (Look at me! Look! Look at me, mama! Zekete!) echoed, commanding attention.[101][102] As coupé-décalé emerged, the Congolese rumba influence remained conspicuous. Notably, with the release of "Sagacité", Douk Saga's debut hit, the explicit imprint of atalaku was apparent.[97] In an RFI interview, DJ Arafat, an Ivorian musician, acknowledged atalaku's influence on his artistic approach. The term has transcended its origins, becoming embedded in the lexicon of Ivory Coast and neighboring countries, though it now signifies "flattery".[94][103]
French hip hop
With the emergence of satellite television across Africa in the early 1990s, coupled with the subsequent development and expansion of the internet across the continent in the subsequent decades, French hip hop flourished within the African francophone market.[104][105][106] Originating in the United States, the genre rapidly gained popularity among youth of African descent in France and various other European nations.[104][107][108] Initially molded by American hip hop, the French variant has since developed a distinct identity and sound, drawing influences from the African musical heritage shared by many French rappers.[104]
By the late 1990s, Bisso Na Bisso, a collective of French rappers from the Republic of the Congo, pioneered the infusion of Congolese rumba rhythms into French rap.[109][110][111] Their album Racines melds American hip hop, Congolese rumba, soukous, and zouk rhythms, featuring collaborations with African artists like Koffi Olomidé, Papa Wemba, Ismaël Lô, Lokua Kanza, and Manu Dibango, alongside the French-Caribbean zouk group Kassav'.[112] Nearly all their thematic elements revolve around a reconnection with their roots, evident through samples sourced directly from Congolese rumba and soukous.[109][112] In the early 2000s, the lingua franca of many French rap tracks was Lingala, accompanied by resonant rumba guitar riffs.[113][114] Mokobé Traoré, a Malian–French rapper, further accentuated this influence on the album Mon Afrique, where he featured artists like Fally Ipupa on the soukous-inspired track "Malembe".[112] The far-reaching impact of "Congolization" transcends hip hop, permeating other genres like French R&B and religious music, all while concurrently gaining traction across Europe and francophone Africa.[94] Prominent artists include Youssoupha, Maître Gims, Dadju, Niska, Singuila, Damso, KeBlack, Naza, Zola, Kalash Criminel, Ninho, Kaysha, Franglish, Gradur, Shay, Bramsito, Baloji, Tiakola, and Ya Levis Dalwear—all descendants of Congolese musical lineage.[113][114][115][116]
East African music
Following the establishment of Radio Congo Belge, with its extensive broadcasting reach in East, Central, and West Africa, Congolese rumba garnered an extensive audience, evolving into a central focus for East African artists to observe and emulate.[117] According to ethnomusicology professor Alex Perullo of Bryant University, Mobutu's Zairianization movement precipitated an upsurge in the popularity of Congolese rumba in Tanzania and Kenya,[118] and pirated albums and cassettes from Kinshasa made their way to local markets in East Africa.[118] Congolese rumba bands, such as Orchestra Maquis Original, established their operational base in Tanzania, alongside Mzee Makassy.[117] Proficient in executing Congolese rumba in Kiswahili, these bands exerted influence over local musicians like Simba Wanyika, Les Wanyika, Fundi Konde, Daudi Kabaka, and Fadhili William, who fused Congolese rumba rhythms with East African linguistic and cultural elements.[117] Kenyan local bands, such as TP Luna Kidi[119][120] and Limpopo International, embraced the Congolese rumba style while singing in their native language, Dholuo, interspersed with Swahili.[117] Meanwhile, other homegrown artists heavily leaned towards the Congolese rumba style, singing entirely in Lingala, to the extent that their local languages were seemingly overshadowed.[117] The popularity of rumba in East Africa, particularly in Kenya, coupled with the evolution of musical tastes, became a musical touchstone for older audiences, with resident bands in entertainment spots consistently including rumba in their repertoire.[117]
See also
References
Bibliography
External links
Шаблон:Rumba Шаблон:Genres of African popular music
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6 4,7 4,8 4,9 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 22,0 22,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 25,0 25,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 27,00 27,01 27,02 27,03 27,04 27,05 27,06 27,07 27,08 27,09 27,10 27,11 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 28,0 28,1 28,2 28,3 28,4 28,5 28,6 28,7 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 31,0 31,1 31,2 31,3 31,4 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 32,0 32,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1. 2010 p. 407.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 36,0 36,1 36,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 38,0 38,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 39,0 39,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 40,0 40,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 50,0 50,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Roberts, John Storm. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music. Original Music cassette tape (1986)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Stone, Ruth. Ed. (1998: 360). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. v. 1 Africa. New York: Garland. Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ Stone, Ruth. Ed. (1998: 361). The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. v. 1 Africa.
- ↑ After Banning Eyre (2006: 13). "Highlife guitar example" Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music. Alfred Pub. Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ Stone, Ruth. Ed. (1998: 365). Excerpt from a Choc Stars seben. Original transcription by Banning Eyre. The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. v. 1 Africa.
- ↑ 75,0 75,1 75,2 75,3 75,4 75,5 75,6 75,7 75,8 75,9 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 76,0 76,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 81,0 81,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 82,0 82,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 91,0 91,1 91,2 91,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 92,0 92,1 Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ 93,0 93,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 94,0 94,1 94,2 94,3 94,4 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 97,0 97,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Citation
- ↑ 104,0 104,1 104,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 109,0 109,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 112,0 112,1 112,2 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 113,0 113,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 114,0 114,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 117,0 117,1 117,2 117,3 117,4 117,5 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 118,0 118,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
.jpg){kind=link}
