Английская Википедия:Consonant mutation

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:More citations needed Шаблон:Sound change Шаблон:IPA notice Consonant mutation is change in a consonant in a word according to its morphological or syntactic environment.

Mutation occurs in languages around the world. A prototypical example of consonant mutation is the initial consonant mutation of all modern Celtic languages. Initial consonant mutation is also found in Indonesian or Malay, in Nivkh, in Southern Paiute and in several West African languages such as Fula. The Nilotic language Dholuo, spoken in Kenya, shows mutation of stem-final consonants, as does English to a small extent. Mutation of initial, medial and final consonants is found in Modern Hebrew. Also, Japanese exhibits word medial consonant mutation involving voicing, rendaku, in many compounds. Uralic languages like Finnish show consonant gradation, a type of consonant mutation.

Similar sound changes

Initial consonant mutation must not be confused with sandhi, which can refer to word-initial alternations triggered by their phonological environment, unlike mutations, which are triggered by their morphosyntactic environment. Some examples of word-initial sandhi are listed below.

Spanish: Шаблон:IPA, occurring after nasals and pause, alternate with Шаблон:IPA, occurring after vowels and liquid consonants. Example: un [b]arco 'a boat', mi [β]arco 'my boat'. This also occurs in Hebrew (as begedkefet, an acronym for the consonants this affects), Aramaic, and Tamil.
Scottish Gaelic: in some dialects, stops in stressed syllables are voiced after nasals, e.g. cat Шаблон:IPA 'a cat', an cat Шаблон:IPA 'the cat'.

Sandhi effects like these (or other phonological processes) are usually the historical origin of morphosyntactically triggered mutation. For example, English fricative mutation (specifically, voicing) in words such as house [haus], plural houses [hauzɪz], and the verb to house [hauz] originates in an allophonic alternation of Old English, where a voiced fricative occurred between vowels (or before voiced consonants), and a voiceless one occurred initially or finally, and also when adjacent to voiceless consonants. Old English infinitives ended in -(i)an and plural nouns (of Class One nouns) ended in -as. Thus, hūs 'a house' had Шаблон:IPA, and hūsian 'house (verb)' had Шаблон:IPA; however, the plural of hūs was hūs, being a neuter noun of the strong a-stem class. During the Middle English period, hous~hus, as part of the loss of gender and erosion of endings, developed plural variation, retaining hous [hu:s], the dative plural housen [hu:zən], which became extended to a general plural, and over time taking on the es plural from Old English Class 1 nouns, thus houses [hu:zəz]. After most endings were lost in English, and the contrast between voiced and voiceless fricatives partly phonemicized (largely due to the influx of French loanwords), the alternation was morphologized.

Examples

English

Шаблон:See also In Old English, velar stops were palatalized in certain cases but not others. That resulted in some alternations, many of which have been levelled, but traces occur in some word doublets such as ditch Шаблон:IPA and dike Шаблон:IPA.

In the past tense of certain verbs, English also retains traces of several ancient sound developments such as *kt > *xt and *ŋx > *x; many of them have been further complicated by the loss of Шаблон:IPA in Middle English.

seek Шаблон:IPA : sought Шаблон:IPA
think Шаблон:IPA : thought Шаблон:IPA

The pair teach Шаблон:IPA : taught Шаблон:IPA has a combination of both this and palatalization.

A second palatalization, called yod-coalescence, occurs in loanwords from Latin. One subtype affects the sibilant consonants: earlier Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA were palatalized, leading to an alternation between alveolar Шаблон:IPA and postalveolar Шаблон:IPA.

confess Шаблон:IPA : confession Шаблон:IPA
fuse Шаблон:IPA : fusion Шаблон:IPA

Another unproductive layer results from the Vulgar Latin palatalization of velar stops before front vowels. It is thus imported from the Romance languages, and Шаблон:IPA alternate with Шаблон:IPA.

induce Шаблон:IPA : induction Шаблон:IPA
magic Шаблон:IPA : magus Шаблон:IPA

A combination of inherited and loaned alternation also occurs: an alternation pattern *t : *sj was brought over in Latinate loanwords, which in English was then turned into an alternation between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

act Шаблон:IPA : action Шаблон:IPA

Celtic languages

Шаблон:Main The Celtic languages are well-known for their initial consonant mutations.^[1]^[2] The individual languages vary on the number of mutations available: Scottish Gaelic has one, Irish and Manx have two, Welsh, Cornish and Breton have four (if mixed mutations are counted). Cornish and Breton have so-called mixed mutations; a trigger causes one mutation to some sounds and another to other sounds. Welsh also has a mixed mutation (triggered by na, ni and oni). The languages vary on the environments for the mutations, but some generalizations can be made. Those languages all have feminine singular nouns mutated after the definite article, with adjectives mutated after feminine singular nouns. In most of the languages, the possessive determiners trigger various mutations. Here are some examples from Breton, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh:

Breton	Welsh	Irish	Scottish Gaelic	Gloss
gwreg	gwraig	bean	bean*	woman/wife
bras	mawr	mór	mòr	big
ar wreg vras	yr wraig fawr	an bhean mhór	a' bhean mhòr	the big woman
kazh	cath	cat	cat	cat
e gazh	ei gath	a chat	a chat	his cat
he c'hazh	ei chath	a cat	a cat	her cat
o c'hazh	eu cath	a gcat	an cat	their cat

Older textbooks on Gaelic sometimes refer to the c → ch mutation as "aspiration", but it is not aspiration in the sense of the word used by modern phoneticians, and linguists prefer to speak of lenition here.

Historically, the Celtic initial mutations originated from progressive assimilation and sandhi phenomena between adjacent words. For example, the mutating effect of the conjunction a 'and' is from the word once having the form *ak, and the final consonant influenced the following sounds.^[3]

Welsh

Welsh has three main classes of initial consonant mutation: soft mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy); nasal mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy); and aspirate mutation, which is sometimes called spirant mutation (Шаблон:Lang-cy). The fourth category is mixed mutation, which calls for an aspirate mutation if possible but otherwise a soft mutation. The following tables show the range of Welsh mutations with examples. A blank cell indicates that no change occurs.

Шаблон:Col-begin Шаблон:Col-2

Radical	Soft	Nasal	Aspirate
p	b	mh Шаблон:IPA	ph Шаблон:IPA
t	d	nh Шаблон:IPA	th Шаблон:IPA
c Шаблон:IPA	g	ngh Шаблон:IPA	ch Шаблон:IPA
b	f Шаблон:IPA	m
d	dd Шаблон:IPA	n
g	Шаблон:IPA*	ng Шаблон:IPA
m	f Шаблон:IPA
ll Шаблон:IPA	l
rh Шаблон:IPA	r
ts Шаблон:IPA	j Шаблон:IPA

*Soft mutation causes initial Шаблон:IPA to be deleted. For example, Шаблон:Lang "garden" becomes Шаблон:Lang "the garden", and Шаблон:Lang "work" becomes Шаблон:Lang "his work".

Шаблон:Col-2

Radical	Soft	Nasal	Aspirate	English
plant Шаблон:IPA	blant Шаблон:IPA	mhlant Шаблон:IPA	phlant Шаблон:IPA	children
tref Шаблон:IPA tŷ Шаблон:IPA	dref Шаблон:IPA dŷ Шаблон:IPA	nhref Шаблон:IPA nhŷ Шаблон:IPA	thref Шаблон:IPA thŷ Шаблон:IPA	town house
coeden Шаблон:IPA	goeden Шаблон:IPA	nghoeden Шаблон:IPA	choeden Шаблон:IPA	tree
brawd Шаблон:IPA	frawd Шаблон:IPA	mrawd Шаблон:IPA		brother
dŵr Шаблон:IPA	ddŵr Шаблон:IPA	nŵr Шаблон:IPA		water
gwaith Шаблон:IPA glas Шаблон:IPA gorsaf Шаблон:IPA	waith Шаблон:IPA las Шаблон:IPA orsaf Шаблон:IPA	ngwaith Шаблон:IPA nglas Шаблон:IPA ngorsaf Шаблон:IPA		work blue station
mawr Шаблон:IPA	fawr Шаблон:IPA			big, large
llan Шаблон:IPA	lan Шаблон:IPA			parish
rhywbeth Шаблон:IPA	rywbeth Шаблон:IPA			something
tsips Шаблон:IPA	jips Шаблон:IPA			chips

Шаблон:Col-end

The mutation ts → j corresponds to the t → d mutation and reflects a change heard in modern words borrowed from English. Borrowed words like Шаблон:Lang (chips) can often be heard in Wales. Шаблон:Lang 'I'm going to get (some) chips'; Шаблон:Lang 'I have chips'. However, the ts → j mutation is not usually included the classic list of Welsh mutations and is rarely taught in formal classes. Nevertheless, it is a part of the colloquial language and is used by native speakers.

h-prothesis

h-prothesis is a phenomenon in Welsh in which a vowel-initial word becomes h-initial. It occurs after the possessive pronouns Шаблон:Lang 'her', Шаблон:Lang 'our', and Шаблон:Lang 'their': Шаблон:Lang 'age', Шаблон:Lang 'her age' (c.f. Шаблон:Lang 'his age'). It also occurs with Шаблон:Lang 'twenty' after Шаблон:Lang 'on' in the traditional counting system: Шаблон:Lang 'twenty-one', literally "one on twenty".

Irish

Irish has two consonant mutations: lenition (Шаблон:Lang-ga Шаблон:IPA) and eclipsis (Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA).

Lenition

Lenition (Шаблон:Lang) is indicated by an Шаблон:Vr following the consonant in question or, in some older typefaces and texts, by a overdot (Шаблон:Vr) above the letter that has undergone lenition. The effects of lenition are as follows:

A stop becomes a fricative. Voicing is retained, as is place of articulation except for the coronals.
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
- Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA become Шаблон:IPA, but Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA do not mutate.
Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are deleted.

Examples
Unmutated	Lenition	Gloss
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"pen"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"house"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"head"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"woman"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"back"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"knee"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"mother"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"eye"
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"answer"

Eclipsis

The following tables show how eclipsis affects the start of words. Eclipsis is represented in the orthography by adding a letter, or occasionally two letters, to the start of the word. If the word is to be capitalised, the original first letter is capitalised, not the letter or letters added for eclipsis, e.g. the Шаблон:Vr in Шаблон:Lang, Ireland's national anthem.

Sound change	Unmutated	Eclipsis	Gloss	Notes
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"potato"	A voiceless stop or /fˠ, fʲ/ is voiced.
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"pen"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"tomato"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"tongue"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"cat"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"head"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"word"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"answer"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"milk"	A voiced stop becomes a nasal.
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"woman"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"back"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"dinner"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"knee"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"gate"
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"bird"	A vowel receives a preceding Шаблон:IPA (before Шаблон:Vr), or Шаблон:IPA (before Шаблон:Vr).
Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	"night"

Russian

In Russian, consonant mutation and alternations are a very common phenomenon during word formation, conjugation and in comparative adjectives.

The most common classes of mutations are the alternation between velar and postalveolar consonants:

Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Lang "quiet" and Шаблон:Linktext "quieter"
Gain or loss of palatalization: Шаблон:Lang "tsar" and Шаблон:Lang "of the tsar" (adjective)

Other common mutations are:

Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA (or less frequently щ Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA: плеск → плещет "splash" / "(he) splashes", Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA: свистеть → свищу "to whistle" / "I whistle"

Hebrew

Modern Hebrew shows a limited set of mutation alternations, involving spirantization only.^[4] The consonants affected may be stem-initial, stem-medial, or stem-final.

Radical	Spirantized
p	f
k	x
b	v

These alternations occur in verbs:
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("come" (imperative) → "you will come"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("broke" (transitive) → "broke" (intransitive),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("he wrote" → "he will write"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("he remembered" → "he will remember"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("you (f.) turned" → "to turn"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("you (f.) judged" → "to judge "),
or in nouns:
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("evening" → "twilight"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("king" → "queen"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA	("a thousand" → "a thousandth"),

However, in Modern Hebrew, stop and fricative variants of Шаблон:Script/Hebrew Шаблон:Rtl, Шаблон:Script/Hebrew and Шаблон:Script/Hebrew are sometimes distinct phonemes:

Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA – Шаблон:IPA	("applied make up" – "tipped ash"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA – Шаблон:IPA	("striped" – "missed"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA – Шаблон:IPA	("connected" – "made friends (with)"),
Шаблон:•Шаблон:Script/Hebrew	Шаблон:IPA – Шаблон:IPA	("got integrated" – "was shocked"),

For a more in depth discussion of this phenomenon, see Begadkefat.

Japanese

Rendaku, meaning "sequential voicing," is a mutation of the initial consonant of a non-initial component in a Japanese compound word:

nigiri + sushi → nigirizushi ("grip (with the hand)" + "sushi" → "hand-shaped sushi")
nigori + sake → nigorizake ("muddy" + "rice wine" → "unfiltered sake")

Uralic languages

Шаблон:Main Word-medial consonant mutation is found in several Uralic languages and has the traditional name of consonant gradation. It is pervasive, especially in the Samic and Finnic branches.

Finnish

Шаблон:Main Consonant gradation involves an alternation in consonants between a strong grade in some forms of a word and a weak grade in others. The consonants subject to graduation are the plosives (p, t, k) that are followed by a vowel and preceded by a vowel, a sonorant (m, n, l, r), or h. The strong grade usually appears in an open syllable or before a long vowel.

Strong	Weak	Example	Notes
pp	p	pappi → papit; lamppu → lamput	Long consonants become short.
tt	t	katto → katot; kortti → kortit
kk	k	pukki → pukit; pankki → pankit
p	v	tapa → tavat	Lenition.
t	d	katu → kadut; lahti → lahdet
k	∅	pako → paot
	v	puku → puvut; kyky → kyvyt	In the combinations -uku- and -yky-.
	j	jälki → jäljet; sulkea → suljin	When followed by e or i and preceded by h, l or r.
mp	mm	kampa → kammat	Assimilation.
nt	nn	lento → lennot
lt	ll	kielto → kiellot
rt	rr	parta → parrat
nk Шаблон:IPA	ng Шаблон:IPA	kenkä → kengät

The gradation of loanwords may include gradation of the plosives that are not native to Finnish:

Strong	Weak	Example
bb	b	lobbaan → lobata
gg	g	bloggaan → blogata

Burmese

Burmese exhibits consonant mutation, involving voicing in many compound words.

The primary type of consonant mutation is that if two syllables are joined to form a compound word, the initial consonant of the second syllable becomes voiced. The shift occurs in these phones:

Examples:

Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) + Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) > Шаблон:IPA ("medicine" + "room" → "clinic")

The second type of consonant mutation occurs when the phoneme Шаблон:IPA after the nasalized final Шаблон:IPA becomes a Шаблон:IPA sound in compound words.

Examples:

"blouse" (Шаблон:My angkyi) can be pronounced Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.

The third type of consonant mutation occurs when phonemes Шаблон:IPA, after the nasalized final Шаблон:IPA, become Шаблон:IPA in compound words:

Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) + Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) > Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) ("to consult")

Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) + Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) > Шаблон:IPA ("to apologize")

Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) + Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:My) > Шаблон:IPA ("airplane")

Southern Oceanic languages

Mutation of the initial consonant of verbs is a feature of several languages in the Southern Oceanic branch of the Austronesian language family.

Central Vanuatu

Initial consonant mutation occurs in many Central Vanuatu languages like Raga:

nan vano "I went"

nam bano "I go"

Those patterns of mutations probably arose when a nasal prefix, indicating the realis mood, became combined with the verb's initial consonant.^[5] The possible ancestral pattern of mutation and its descendants in some modern Central Vanuatu languages are shown below:

Proto-Central Vanuatu	k > ŋk	r > nr	p > mp
Raga (Pentecost)	x > ŋg	t > d	v / vw > b / bw
Northern Apma (Pentecost)	k > ŋg	t > d	v / w > b / bw
Southern Apma (Pentecost)			v / w > b / bw
Ske (Pentecost)		z > d	v / vw > b / bw
Lonwolwol (Ambrym)		r > rV	∅ > bV
Southeast Ambrym	x / h / ∅ > g	t > d	v / h > b
Northern Paama	∅ > k	t > r
Central/Southern Paama	k / ∅ > g / ŋ	t / r > d
Nāti (Malekula)	k / ʔ > ŋk	t / r > nt / ntr	v / w > mp / mpw
Maii (Epi)		t > d	v > b
Lewo (Epi)			v / w > p / pw
Lamenu (Epi)			∅ > p
Bierebo (Epi)	k > ŋk	t / c > nd / nj	v / w > p / pw
Baki (Epi)		c > s	v > mb
Bieria (Epi)		t > nd	v > mb
Nakanamanga (Efaté-Shepherds)	k > ŋ	r > t	v / w > p / pw
Namakir (Shepherds)	k > ŋ	t / r > d	v / w > b

New Caledonia

Initial consonant mutation also serves a grammatical purpose in some New Caledonian languages. For example, Iaai uses initial consonant mutation in verbs to distinguish between specific/definite objects and generic/indefinite objects:

Mutation	Determinate object	Indeterminate object	Meaning
k > x	kap	xəp	"welcome"
l > hl	lele	hlihli	"pull, haul in"
n > hn	nəŋ	hnəŋ	"brandish"
ɳ > hɳ	ɳooc	hɳuuk	"tie"
t > θ	təəʈ	θəəʈ	"lift up by the end"
w > hw	wia	hwiəə	"turn, change"
v > hv	vɛɖen	hvɛɛʈ	"carry on the shoulder"

Those forms likely derive from an earlier reduplication of the first syllable in which the interconsonantal vowel was deleted, resulting in a spirantization of the formerly reduplicated consonant.^[6]

Dholuo

The Dholuo language (one of the Luo languages) shows alternations between voiced and voiceless states of the final consonant of a noun stem.^[7] In the construct state (the form that means 'hill of', 'stick of', etc.) the voicing of the final consonant is switched from the absolute state. (There are also often vowel alternations that are independent of consonant mutation.)

Шаблон:IPA 'hill' (abs.), god (const.)
Шаблон:IPA 'stick' (abs.), luð (const.)
Шаблон:IPA 'appearance' (abs.), kit (const.)
Шаблон:IPA 'bone' (abs.), Шаблон:IPA (const.)
buk 'book' (abs.), bug (const.)
Шаблон:IPA 'book' (abs.), Шаблон:IPA (const.)

Fula

Consonant mutation is a prominent feature of the Fula language. The Gombe dialect spoken in Nigeria, for example, shows mutation triggered by declension class.^[8] The mutation grades are fortition and prenasalization:

Radical	Fortition	Prenasalization
f	p	p
s	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
h	k	k
w	b	mb
r	d	nd
j	Шаблон:IPA, ɡ	Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA	ɡ	Шаблон:IPA

For example, the stems rim- 'free man' and Шаблон:IPA 'person' have the following forms:

Шаблон:IPA (class 2), dimo (class 1), ndimon (class 6)
Шаблон:IPA (class 2), gimɗo (class 1), ŋgimkon (class 6)

Indonesian and Malay

The active form of a multisyllabic verb with an initial stop consonant or fricative consonant is formed by prefixing the verb stem with meN- in which N stands for a nasal sharing the same place of articulation as the initial consonant:

garuk → menggaruk (= to scratch), hitung → menghitung (= to count),
beri → memberi (= to give), fitnah → memfitnah (= to accuse falsely),
cari → mencari (= to search), dapat → mendapat (= to obtain), *jangkau → menjangkau (= to reach)

An initial consonant that is an unvoiced stop or s is deleted, leaving only the nasal in its place.

kandung → mengandung (= to contain or to be pregnant),
putih → memutih (= to turn white),
satu → menyatu (= to become one / to unite),
tulis → menulis (= to write).

Applied to verbs starting with a vowel, the nasal is realized as ng Шаблон:IPA.

Monosyllabic verbs add an epenthetic vowel before prefixing and produce the prefix menge-:

bor (= boring tool / drill) → mengebor (= to make a hole with drill).

Verbs starting with a nasal or approximant consonant do not add any mutant nasal, only me-.^[9]

The colloquial language drops me- prefix but tends to replace it with nasalization:Шаблон:Citation needed

tanya → menanya → nanya
pikir → memikir → mikir
merepotkan → ng(e)repotin

Latvian

More information is available in the Latvian Wikipedia.

Mutation	Example
b→bj	gulbis→gulbja
c→č	lācis→lāča
d→ž	briedis→brieža
dz→dž	dadzis→dadža
g→dz	lūgt→lūdzu
k→c	liekt→liecu
l→ļ	sīlis→sīļa
m→mj	zeme→zemju
n→ņ	zirnis→zirņa
p→pj	krupis→krupja
r→r	teteris→tetera
s→š	lasis→laša
t→š	vācietis→vācieša
v→vj	cirvis→cirvja
z→ž	vēzis→vēža

Also two consonants can mutate as a group.

Mutation	Example
kst→kš	pāksts→pākšu
ln→ļņ	cilnis→ciļņa
sl→šļ	kāpslis→kāpšļa
sn→šņ	atkusnis→atkušņa
zl→žļ	zizlis→zižļa
zn→žņ	zvaigzne→zvaigžņu

Ute

In Ute, also called Southern Paiute, there are three consonant mutations, which are triggered by different word-stems,^[10] The mutations are spirantization, gemination, and prenasalization:

Radical	Spirantization	Gemination	Prenasalization
p	v	pp	mp
t	r	tt	nt
k	Шаблон:IPA	kk	Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA
ts		tts	nts
s		ss
m	Шаблон:IPA	mm	mm
n		nn	nn

For example, the absolutive suffix -pi appears in different forms, according to the noun stem to which it is suffixed:

movi-ppi 'nose'
sappI-vi 'belly'
Шаблон:IPA-mpi 'tongue'

References

Шаблон:Reflist

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