Английская Википедия:Cornish phonology

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:IPA notice The Cornish language separated from the southwestern dialect of Common Brittonic at some point between 600 and 1000 AD. The phonological similarity of the Cornish, Welsh, and Breton languages during this period is reflected in their writing systems, and in some cases it is not possible to distinguish these languages orthographically.Шаблон:Sfn However, by the time it had ceased to be spoken as a community language around 1800Шаблон:Sfn the Cornish language had undergone significant phonological changes, resulting in a number of unique features which distinguish it from the other neo-Brittonic languages.

Research history

The emergence of a language that can be described as specifically Cornish, rather than a dialect of late Common Brittonic, has not been conclusively dated and may have been a process lasting several hundred years. According to Kenneth Jackson, the Common Brittonic period ended around 600 AD due to the loss of direct land communications between western and southwestern Britain following the Anglo-Saxon incursions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Kim McCone, however, assumes a later date, around the turn of the first millennium, citing continuing maritime connections and the various shared phonological developments during this period, such as the accent shift and internal i-affection.Шаблон:Sfn Only minor differences, such as the sporadic (orthographic) denasalisation of Common Brittonic *m, can distinguish Cornish from Breton during this period, and no single phonological feature distinguishes Cornish from both Welsh and Breton until the beginning of the assibilation of dental stops, which is not found before the second half of the eleventh century.Шаблон:Sfn

Ken George divides the history of the Cornish language into four periods:Шаблон:Sfn

These dates are broadly accepted, though Talat Chaudhri uses slightly different dates, based upon the estimated dates of the surviving texts.Шаблон:Sfn

As with other languages known only from written records, the phonological system of Cornish has to be inferred through analysis of the orthography used in the extant manuscripts, using the methods of historical linguistics such as internal reconstruction and the comparative method.Шаблон:Sfn This task is hampered by a relative paucity of surviving texts,[1] but the existence of a number of documents written in rhyme, as well as the work of Edward Lhuyd, who visited Cornwall for three months in the early 1700s and recorded what he heard in an approximately phonetic orthography, have allowed linguists to reconstruct various stages of the phonology of the Cornish language.

Explanation of symbols

Most symbols below correspond with their expected IPA values. Some non-standard symbols used in the literature are explained below:

  • *μ - a fully nasalized [β] sound
  • *ī, *ū, etc. - Proto-Celtic and early Brittonic long vowels
  • *ĭ, *ŭ etc. - Proto-Celtic and early Brittonic short vowels
  • â, ê etc. - Late Cornish long vowels
  • *ʉ (= *ü in Schrijver's notation) - an i-affected *ŭ
  • *ɵ (= *ö in Schrijver's notation) an i-affected *ŏ
  • *e̝ = "raised e", eg. from i-affected *ă or *ĕ
  • *ō̜, *o̜ = "open o" - from Proto-Celtic *ā (and *au, according to Schrijver)
  • *o̝ - "raised o"
  • *Σ used by Jackson to represent a sound between [s] and [h], perhaps similar to a strongly aspirated Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Sfn

Main features and issues

Stress

Stress in polysyllables was originally on the final syllable in the earliest Cornish,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which then shifted to the penultimate syllable at some point in the eleventh century.Шаблон:Sfn Monosyllables were usually stressed, apart from the definite article, possessive adjectives, verbal particles, conjunctions and prepositions.Шаблон:Sfn According to Ken George, Middle Cornish verse suggests that the pitch-accent remained on the final syllable.Шаблон:Sfn

Rules for vowel length

From around 600 AD, the earlier Brittonic system of phonemic vowel length was replaced by a New Quantity System, in which vowel length is allophonic, determined by the position of the stress and the structure of the syllable.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After the Old Cornish accent shift to the penultimate syllable, probably in the 11th century, the rules were as follows:

  • vowels in unstressed syllables are short
  • vowels in stressed syllables, followed by two or more consonants (including the long fortis or geminate consonants *mm, *nn, *ll, and *rr) are short
    • There is some evidence that vowels were also realised as long or half-long before the consonant clusters *sk, *stШаблон:Sfn and *sp.Шаблон:Sfn This may have been due to the influence of English loanwords, or perhaps because such clusters were analysed as a single consonant.
  • vowels in stressed syllables, followed by a single consonant (or in hiatus) in polysyllabic words were half-long
  • vowels in stressed syllables in monosyllabic words were long
  • vowels in irregularly-stressed final syllables of polysyllabic words were long

The date of the breakdown of these quantity rules, due to the influx of English loan-words not conforming to the original system, is disputed. Nicholas Williams dates it to before the earliest Middle Cornish texts,Шаблон:Sfn whereas Ken George states that this change did not occur until 1600.Шаблон:Sfn According to this analysis, Cornish at some point returned to a system of phonemic vowel length as in early Brittonic after this so-called "prosodic shift", and most vowels in polysyllables became or remained short.

The "prosodic shift"

The suggestion that Cornish phonology underwent systematic changes in its vocalic system first appears in Ken George's A Phonological History of Cornish, who dated it to around 1600.Шаблон:Sfn Nicholas Williams, however, later suggested that this Prosodic Shift occurred some centuries earlier, either in the early thirteenth centuryШаблон:Sfn or the twelfth century. According to Williams, the consequences of the prosodic shift are:Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

  • Vowel length becomes phonemic
  • Half-long vowels become short
  • All long or geminate consonants are reduced to short or single consonants
  • Vowels in unstressed syllables tend to be reduced to schwa
  • Vocalic alternation
  • All nuclei in diphthongs are now short

Williams's theory has been criticised by several linguists. Chaudhri points out that "there is no incontrovertible evidence as yet to show that any such Prosodic Shift ever occurred" at any time, especially not as early as postulated by Williams; he further argues that "the observed results of pre-occlusion in the sixteenth century would have been impossible if the inherited quantity system had been radically re-shaped centuries before."Шаблон:Sfn and states that George is "quite correct in his rejection of Williams's evidence for the Prosodic Shift at a date before the Middle Cornish period"Шаблон:Sfn He also rejects George's use of Late Cornish spellings to support a shift c. 1600.Шаблон:Sfn Albert Bock and Ben Bruch argue that Williams's claim that all diphthongs were short from the thirteenth century at the latest "does not withstand even a cursory glance at Edward Lhuyd's transcription of Late Cornish diphthongs", which were collected in the early 1700s.Шаблон:Sfn

Vocalic alternation

Nicholas Williams points out that the reflex of Common Brittonic *ī and *ĭ in the Middle Cornish texts is usually written as Шаблон:Angbr in monosyllables, but is often written as Шаблон:Angbr in polysyllables.Шаблон:Sfn This phenomenon is known as 'vocalic alternation'.

This written alternation does not appear in all of the Middle Cornish texts,Шаблон:Sfn and there is disagreement on how this alternation should be interpreted. Both Ken George and Nicholas Williams interpret this as a purely orthographic phenomenon. According to Williams, the continued writing of Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr in monosyllables is an archaism and a reflection of orthographic conservatism which does not represent the contemporary pronunciation of the scribes.Шаблон:Sfn According to George, the scribes who wrote Шаблон:Angbr were describing the quality of the vowel, whereas those who wrote Шаблон:Angbr were describing the reduced quantity of a half-long vowel in a polysyllable.Шаблон:Sfn Both of these interpretations are questioned by Bock and Bruch, who argue that the use of Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr in the texts reflects the phonetic reality of the language at around the time the manuscripts were written. According to their analysis, the graph used by the scribes is determined by the quality of the vowel (rather than the quantity), and vocalic alternation is a consequence of the lowering of Old Cornish *ɪ to *e. They further state that vocalic alternation "cannot therefore be the result of a general shortening of vowels, unless one accepts Williams's assertion that 'by the Late Cornish period, vowels in stressed monosyllables had again lengthened.'"Шаблон:Sfn

Assibilation and palatalization of dental plosives

  • Assibilation and palatalization of Old Cornish *t and *d:
    • According to George, the groups *lt and *nt, except when followed by a vowel plus a liquid or a nasal, were assibilated to *ls and *ns respectively, c. 1275.Шаблон:Sfn
    • Also according to George, medial and final *d, including in the groups *ld, *nd and *dw, became assibilated to *z in similar phonetic environments, c. 1325. This sound change also does not occur when *d is followed by a vowel plus a liquid or a nasal.Шаблон:Sfn
    • Chaudhri argues that these phonemes in this environment were first assibilated (apart from a few early cases of palatalization), then palatalized to *dʒ later, perhaps with *ʒ as an intermediate step.Шаблон:Sfn
    • George now argues that assibilation occurred first, followed by palatalization, but states that the change to *dʒ did not take hold in the Powder hundred.[2]
    • Nicholas Williams proposes the following schema for the evolution of Old Cornish *t and *d:Шаблон:Sfn

Summary of developments from Proto-Celtic to Late Cornish

Шаблон:Cleanup lang

Proto-Celtic British Latin Late SW Brittonic Old Cornish Middle Cornish Late Cornish Example
Proto-Celtic British Latin Late Brittonic Old Cornish Middle Cornish Late Cornish
Short vowels
ĭ ɪШаблон:Sfn ɪ ɪ e bitus 'world' bɪd bɪd bɪz bêz
eШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ ɸlikkā 'flat stone' lɛx lɛx lɛx lêx
ĕ eШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ ekʷos 'horse' ɛbo̜l 'foal' ɛbœl ɛbɛl ɛbɛl
ɪШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ɪ ɪ ɛ ɸare kʷennū 'in front of the head' ɛrbɪnn ɛrbɪnn ɛrbɪnn war bɛᵈnШаблон:Sfn
ɪШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn ɪ ɛ ɛ melinos 'yellow' mɪlɪn mɪlɪn mɛlɪn mɛlɪn
ă aШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn a a a bakkos 'hook' bax bax bax bâh
e̝Шаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ markoi 'horses' me̝rx mɛrx mɛrx mɛrx
e̝Шаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ klamito-'sickness' kle̝μɪd klɛβɪd klɛvɪz klɛvɛz
ŏ oШаблон:Sfn o o o rotos 'wheel' rod roz roz rôz
ɵШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ kornī 'horns' kɵrn kɛrn kɛrn kɛrn
ɵШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ olīnā 'elbow' ɵlin ɛlin ɛlin ɛlin
ŭ uШаблон:Sfn o o o bukkos 'buck' bux box box bôh
oШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn o o o butā 'hut, dwelling' bod bod boz bôz
ʉШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ tullī 'holes' tʉll tɛll tɛll tɛll
ɵШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn ɛ ɛ ɛ gulbīno 'beak' gɵlβin gɛlβin gɛlvin gɛlvin
Long vowels and diphthongs
īШаблон:Sfn i i i i līw- 'colour' liw liw liw lîw
ūШаблон:Sfn kūlos 'back' kil kil kil kîl
ī (< ē)Шаблон:Sfn wīros 'true' gwir gwir gwir gwîr
euШаблон:Sfn y y y i teutā 'people' tyd tyd tyz tîz
ouШаблон:Sfn roudos 'red' ryð ryð ryð rîð
oiШаблон:Sfn oinos 'one' yn yn ynn ɪᵈn
eiШаблон:Sfn ui ui o̝ u skeitom 'shield' skuid skuid sko̝z skuz
aiШаблон:Sfn oi kaikos 'blind' ('vain, worthless') koiɡ kuiɡ ko̝ɡ kûɡ
āШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn ɔ œ œ e māros 'great' mo̜r mœr mœr mêr
auШаблон:Sfn au-beros 'vain, futile' o̜βɛr œβɛr œvɛr ɛvɛr
Semivowels
j jШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn j j j jaro- 'chicken' jar jar jar jâr
ðШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ð ð ð monijos 'mountain' mɵnɪð mɛnɪð mɛnɪð mɛnɪð
w gwШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn gw gw gw wēros 'true' gwir gwir gwir gwîr
wШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn w w w awilā 'wind' awɛl awɛl awɛl awɛl
Consonants
kʷ pШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn p p p kʷetwores 'four' pɛdwar pɛdwar pɛzwar padʒar
bШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn b b b ekʷos 'horse' ɛbo̜l 'foal' ɛbœl ɛbɛl ɛbɛl
t t t tШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn t toranos 'thunder' taran taran taran taran
tʃШаблон:Sfn tʃ tegos 'house' ti ti tʃi tʃəi
sШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn s s kantom 'hundred' kant kant kans kans
d d dШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn d ɸlitanos 'broad' lɪdan lɛdan lɛdan lɛdan
z zШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn beitom 'food' buid buid bo̝z bûz
dʒШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn tritijos 'third' trɪdɪð trɪda trɪza trɛdʒa
rШаблон:Efn
k kШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn k k k kenetlom 'people, race' kɛnɛðl kɛnɛðl kɛnɛðl kɛnɛðl
gШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn g g g dekam 'ten' dɛg dɛg dɛg dêg
b bШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn b b b biwos 'alive' bɪw bɪw bɪw bêw
βШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn β v v ab-on- 'river' aβon aβon avon avon
d dШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn d d d dekam 'ten' dɛg dɛg dɛg dêg
ðШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ð ð ð roudos 'red' ryð ryð ryð rîð
g gШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn g g g gabros 'goat' gaβr gaβr gavr gavr
ɣШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn ∅ ∅ ∅ slougos 'troop, army' lyɣ ly ly lîw
ɣШаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn x x (h) argantom 'silver' arɣant arxant arxans ar(h)ans
gʷ gwШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn gw gw gw gʷeltā 'grass' gwɛlt gwɛlt gwɛls gwɛls
s hШаблон:Sfn h h h satom 'seed' had had haz hâz
∅Шаблон:Sfn ∅ ∅ ∅ wesu 'worthy' gwiw gwiw gwiw gwîw
sШаблон:Sfn s s s s sagitta 'arrow' saɣɛθ sɛθ sɛθ sêθ
ɸ ∅Шаблон:Sfn ∅ ∅ ∅ ɸlānos 'full' lo̜n lœn lœn lên
l lШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn l l l talu- 'forehead' tal tal tal tâl
r rШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn r r r garanos 'crane' garan garan garan garan
n nШаблон:Sfn n n n nemos 'heaven' nɛμ nɛβ nɛv nêv
m m (= /M/, /mm/)Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn m m m meli 'honey' mɛl mɛl mɛl mêl
μШаблон:Sfn β v v samos 'summer' haμ haβ hav hâv
b b b b mrogis 'territory' broɣ bro bro brô
ll llШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn ll ll ll dallos 'blind' dall dall dall dall
rr rrШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn rr rr rr karros 'wagon' karr karr karr karr
nn nnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn nn nn ᵈn kʷenno- 'head' pɛnn pɛnn pɛnn pɛᵈn
mm mmШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn mm mm ᵇm mammā 'mother, mum' mamm mamm mamm maᵇm
pp fШаблон:Sfn f f f kippus 'pole, log' kɪf kɪf kɪf kêf
tt θШаблон:Sfn θ θ θ kattos 'cat' kaθ kaθ kaθ kâθ
kk xШаблон:Sfn x x h brokkos 'badger' brox brox brox brôh

Notes Шаблон:Notelist

Descriptive phonology

Old Cornish c. 1000AD

Consonants
Bilabial Labio-
dental 		Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Labial-
velar 		Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nowrap
Stop Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Fricative Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Nasalized fricative Шаблон:Lang
Approximant Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Lateral Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Rhotic Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
  • Шаблон:IPA was an allophone of *n before *k.
  • Whether *ʍ should be classed as a phoneme, rather than a realisation of *hw, is disputed. Talat Chaudhri lists it as a separate phoneme.Шаблон:Sfn
  • Iwan Wmffre speculates that *x may have been phonetically a uvular Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
  • The precise realizations of *r and *rr are unknown. Chaudhri speculates that an apical realization is perhaps the most likely.Шаблон:Sfn
Vowels
Front Central Back
Close Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Near-close Шаблон:Lang
Open-mid Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Open Шаблон:Lang
Diphthongs
Шаблон:IPA-diphthongs Шаблон:IPA-diphthongs
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang

Middle Cornish c. 1400 AD

Consonants
Bilabial Labio-
dental 		Dental Alveolar Palato-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Labial-
velar 		Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nowrap
Stop Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Affricate Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Fricative Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Approximant Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Lateral Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Rhotic Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
  • *ʒ~dʒ is the reflex of Old Cornish *d in many environments according to Chaudhri.Шаблон:Sfn According to Nicholas Williams, Old Cornish *d in these environments was either palatalized to *dʒ or assibilated to *z, depending on dialect.Шаблон:Sfn
  • geminates other than *mm, *nn, *ll, and *rr are not generally accepted, and are put in brackets here
Vowels
Front Central Back
Close Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Near-close Шаблон:Lang
Close-mid Шаблон:Lang
Open-mid Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Open Шаблон:Lang
Diphthongs
Шаблон:IPA-diphthongs Шаблон:IPA-diphthongs
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
  • *ɪu is rare according to George, who has now removed it from many words,[3] and its continued existence at all in Middle Cornish is disputed by WilliamsШаблон:Sfn and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  • *yu, the supposed reflex of Old Cornish Шаблон:IPA according to George, is based on rhyme evidence and etymology, but only occurs in a few words, and is disputed.

Late Cornish c. 1700 AD

Consonants
Bilabial Labio-
dental 		Dental Alveolar Palato-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Labial-
velar 		Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Nowrap
Stop Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Affricate Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Fricative Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Approximant Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Lateral Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Rhotic Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
  • By this time, *x was merging with *h (or disappearing) in all environments.Шаблон:Sfn
  • By 1600, historical *mm and *nn were generally being realised as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in stressed final and penultimate syllables (and occasionally as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in penultimate syllables), respectively.Шаблон:Sfn
  • There is a tendency for final fricatives to be lost or confused with one anotherШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
  • Whatever their phonetic realisation, the distinction between *rr and *r may have been lost at this stage, if not earlier. Alternatively, *rr and *ll may have been realized as devoiced or aspirated sounds, in contrast to their historical singleton counterparts.
  • Tendency to replace *ʍ with *w from the Middle Cornish period onwards becomes more frequent.
  • Old Cornish *d now consistently merged with either *z or *dʒ, or rarely *r (< *z < *d), except when followed by a vowel and *n, *l, or *r, where original *d remains.
VowelsШаблон:Sfn
Front Central Back
Close Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Near-close Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Close-mid Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Mid Шаблон:Nowrap
Open-mid Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Near-open Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Open Шаблон:Lang
  • Albert Bock and Benjamin Bruch classify *ɛː and *eː as separate phonemesШаблон:Sfn
  • Lhuyd's description of Late Cornish phonology, as well as contemporary pronunciation of Cornish placenames, may indicate the raising of *a to Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfn
  • Wmffre disputes Lhuyd's description of *ɒː as a distinct vowel and claims that the low realization of Cornish long *oː (perhaps as Шаблон:IPA) may have led him to make a distinction that did not exist.Шаблон:Sfn
Diphthongs
i-diphthongs u-diphthongs
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang
Шаблон:Lang

Revived Cornish c. 1904–present

Cornish ceased to be spoken as a community language around 1800. The revival of the language is generally dated to the publication of Henry Jenner's Handbook of the Cornish Language (1904). Jenner's work aims to pick up where the language left off and, as such, is mainly based upon Late Cornish vernacular and Lhuyd. Since this time, a variety of other recommended phonologies have been proposed, based upon various target dates and different theoretical reconstructions.

  • Jenner's system

Jenner's system is largely based on the phonology of late Cornish, and therefore is characterised by pre-occlusion, the loss of the rounded front vowels, and the raising of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA. This system was used by the earliest revivalists, until it was replaced by Nance's Unified Cornish.

  • Unified Cornish

Robert Morton Nance developed what came to be known as Unified Cornish from the 1930s. Nance based his system more on the earliest Middle Cornish texts, Pascon Agan Arluth and the Ordinalia. With a target date of around 1500, Nance's system is characterised by the addition of the rounded front vowel Шаблон:IPA and a recommendation not to use pre-occluded forms.

  • Revived Late Cornish

Mainly associated with Richard Gendall, who began to promote this system in the early 1980s, Revived Late Cornish again seeks to base its phonology upon an analysis of Lhuyd and the other Late Cornish sources.

  • Kernewek Kemmyn

Developed mainly by Ken George following the publication of his thesis, A Phonological History of Cornish (1985), Kernewek Kemmyn again returns to a Middle Cornish target date. This system has a number of differences from Nance's reconstruction, including the addition of a second rounded front vowel Шаблон:IPA, an additional vowel Шаблон:IPA, and a phonemic contrast between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Also Kernewek Kemmyn is characterised by phonemic consonant length, half-long vowels in stressed penultima of polysyllables where appropriate, and a number of diphthongs which are not used in other systems. The following tables are based on Шаблон:Harvcoltxt.

Consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː (Шаблон:IPA link)
Stop voiceless Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː
voiced Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Fricative voiceless Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link
voiced Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link (Шаблон:IPA link~Шаблон:IPA link)
Approximant Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Rhotic Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkː
Vowels
Front Central Back
Close Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Near-close Шаблон:IPA link
Close-mid Шаблон:IPA link
Open-mid Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Open Шаблон:IPA link
  • Unified Cornish Revised

Following the publication of Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, Nicholas Williams published his revision of Nance's system in the form of a grammar, Clappya Kernowek, and an English-Cornish Dictionary. UCR is notable for the absence of George's /o/ and /ɪ/ phonemes, lack of half-length, and a phonemic contrast between long and short vowels rather than consonants. However, it retains the /œ/ vowel of KK, which Unified Cornish does not use.

  • Standard Written Form

Шаблон:Main The Standard Written Form, agreed in May 2008, was developed with the intention of allowing all users of previous systems to write as they pronounce the language. It attempts to represent the pronunciation systems of UC, UCR, KK and RLC in a single orthography. As such, it does not represent a single phonology, but seeks to cover a range of pronunciations based on a period of several hundred years.

  • Kernowek Standard (KS)

Kernowek Standard is an orthography and recommended pronunciation developed mainly by Nicholas Williams and Michael Everson in response to perceived problems with the SWF. Like the SWF, it attempts to represent a diverse range of pronunciations, with the exception of KK, the recommended phonology of which is not catered for. Although it mainly differs from the SWF orthographically, it has a number of phonological features which distinguish it from the SWF.

Consonants Шаблон:Citation needed
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Stop Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Affricate Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Fricative Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Rhotic Шаблон:IPA link ~ Шаблон:IPAlink
Approximant central Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
lateral Шаблон:IPAlink
Vowels Шаблон:Citation needed
Front Central Back
short long short long
Close Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Mid Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPA link~Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink
Open Шаблон:IPA link~Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink Шаблон:IPAlink

Historical phonology

Possibly already in Proto-Celtic c. 1000 BC

  • *ei > *ē
  • *eu > *ou

From Proto-Celtic to Proto-Brittonic c. 1000—1 BC

Шаблон:Main

  • *kʷ > *p
  • *skʷ > *sw (initially)
  • *gʷ > *w (initially, before vowels)
  • *gʷ > *g (initially, or before *r)
  • *ɸ > ∅ (in most contexts)
  • *sɸ > *f (initially)
  • *sr > *fr (initially)
  • *ml > *bl
  • *mr > *br

From Proto-Brittonic to Late (Southwestern) Brittonic c. 1 — 800 AD

Old Cornish c. 800 — 1200 AD

Middle Cornish c.1200 — 1600 AD

Late Cornish c.1600 — 1800 AD

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Further reading

Шаблон:Portal

Шаблон:Cornish language Шаблон:Language phonologies

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Cornish_phonology&oldid=14074096