Английская Википедия:Coropuna

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Шаблон:Featured articleШаблон:Short description Шаблон:EngvarB Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox mountain

Coropuna is a dormant compound volcano located in the Andes mountains of southeast-central Peru. The upper reaches of Coropuna consist of several perennially snowbound conical summits, lending it the name Nevado Coropuna in Spanish. The complex extends over an area of Шаблон:Convert and its highest summit reaches an altitude of Шаблон:Convert above sea level. This makes the Coropuna complex the third-highest of Peru. Its thick ice cap is the most extensive in Earth's tropical zone, with several outlet glaciers stretching out to lower altitudes. Below an elevation of Шаблон:Convert, there are various vegetation belts which include trees, peat bogs, grasses and also agricultural areas and pastures.

The Coropuna complex consists of several stratovolcanoes. These are composed chiefly of ignimbritesШаблон:Efn and lava flows on a basement formed by Middle Miocene ignimbrites and lava flows. The Coropuna complex has been active for at least five million years, with the bulk of the current cone having been formed during the Quaternary.Шаблон:Efn Coropuna has had two or three Holocene eruptions Шаблон:Nowrap and either Шаблон:Nowrap or Шаблон:Nowrap ago which generated lava flows, plus an additional eruption which may have taken place some 6,000 years ago. Current activity occurs exclusively in the form of hot springs.

Coropuna is located Шаблон:Convert northwest of the city of Arequipa. People have lived on the slopes of Coropuna for millennia. The mountain was regarded as sacred by the Inca, and several archaeological sites have been discovered there, including the Inca sites of Maucallacta and Acchaymarca. The mountain was considered one of the most important Inca religious sites in their realm; human sacrifices were performed on its slopes, Coropuna forms part of many local legends and the mountain is worshiped to the present day.

The ice cap of Coropuna, which during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) had expanded to over Шаблон:Cvt, has been in retreat since at least 1850. Estimates published in 2018 imply that the ice cap will persist until about 2120. The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people relying upon its watershed, and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be hazardous to surrounding populations. Because of this, the Peruvian geological agency, INGEMMET, monitors Coropuna and has published a hazard map for the volcano.

Name and etymology

In Quechua, Шаблон:Lang means "plateau", and Шаблон:Lang is a common component of toponyms such as with Coro Coro, Bolivia, though its etymology is unclear.[1] The name may mean Шаблон:Lang, "Puna of Gold",[2] "golden mountain",[3] "cold, snowy" or "cut off at the top".[4] The name is also spelled Шаблон:Lang.[5] The mountain is also called Nevado Coropuna; "Nevado" is the Spanish word for "snowy".Шаблон:Sfn There is another volcano in the Andahua volcanic field which has the same name, but is completely separate.Шаблон:Sfn

Geography and geomorphology

Coropuna lies in the Andes of Peru,Шаблон:Sfn on the border between the Castilla and Condesuyos ProvincesШаблон:Sfn of the Arequipa Department.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Towns around the volcano belong to the Chuquibamba, Machaguay, Pampacolca and Viraco Districts.Шаблон:Sfn The volcano can be reached on paved roads through the town of Andahua, either from Arequipa or through Aplao from the Pan-American Highway.Шаблон:Sfn Roads also pass along the northern and western sides of the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn

Regional

The Andes stretch along the western coast of South America from Tierra del Fuego northwards to Venezuela, forming the longest mountain chain in the world.Шаблон:Sfn More regionally, the volcano is in the Шаблон:Interlanguage link, a mountain range which lies at an average of Шаблон:Convert from the Pacific coastline,Шаблон:Sfn and contains nearly one hundred glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn

Coropuna is in the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which contains 44 stratovolcanoesШаблон:SfnШаблон:Spaced en dashincluding many of the world's highestШаблон:SfnШаблон:Spaced en dashand several glaciated volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn Besides Coropuna, some of the latter are Sara Sara, Solimana, Mismi, Ampato, Hualca Hualca, Sabancaya, Chachani, Misti, Ubinas, Huaynaputina, Tutupaca, Yucamane and Casiri.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Also found nearby are Neogene-age calderas.Шаблон:Sfn Sixteen volcanoes in Peru are active or potentially active.Шаблон:Sfn

There is no habitation on Coropuna above Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn but numerous villages dot the lower slopes.Шаблон:Efn Agriculture and animal husbandry are the most common economic activities;Шаблон:Sfn there are copper and gold mines as well.Шаблон:Sfn The city of Arequipa lies Шаблон:Convert to the southeast.Шаблон:Sfn

Local

General outline

An elongated snow-covered ridge rises from a dark landscape with valleys.
Coropuna seen from the south in 1988

Seen from above, Coropuna has a pear-shaped outlineШаблон:Sfn and is a Шаблон:Convert eastШаблон:En dashwest ridgeШаблон:Sfn that features four summits that are separated by broad saddles.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In addition, there is another summit north of the eastШаблон:En dashwest trend.[6] A Шаблон:Convert high subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha lies east of Coropuna;Шаблон:Sfn it is a stratovolcano.[7] Coropuna covers a surface area of Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn and its various main summits rise about Шаблон:Convert above the surrounding plateau.Шаблон:Sfn

The volcano is formed from alternating layers of ignimbrite and lava,Шаблон:Sfn and consists of coalesced stratovolcanoesШаблон:Sfn and seven separate coulees.Шаблон:Sfn Ice cover makes discerning its structure difficult,Шаблон:Sfn but aboutШаблон:Sfn six separate peaksШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[8] as well as six not readily recognisable summit craters have been counted.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Additional lava domes form a southeastward trending line on the southwestern side of the volcanoШаблон:Sfn and dikes crop out close to Lake Pallarcocha.Шаблон:Sfn Coropuna overlies the margin of a buried caldera.[9]

The higher elevations of Coropuna consist of an ice cap and glaciated terrainШаблон:Sfn but old lava flows with gentle slopesШаблон:Sfn and blocky lava crop out from underneath the ice.Шаблон:Sfn Regions of hydrothermally altered rocks, lava flows, pyroclastic flows and areas covered by volcanic ash occur all around the mountain.Шаблон:Sfn Glacial activity has eroded these volcanic rocks, carving valleys into them or removing them altogether.Шаблон:Sfn This process created U-shaped valleys such as Buenavista, Cospanja and Tuilaqui on the southern flank, and glacial valleys such as Chaque, Mapa Mayo, Río Blanco, Torcom and Ullulo on the northern slopes.Шаблон:Sfn Glacial valleys of Coropuna are up to Шаблон:Convert deep and Шаблон:Convert long.Шаблон:Sfn

There are several collapse scarps on the mountain, especially around its central sector.[7] A sector collapse took place on the southwestern flank and formed a landslide deposit as well as a horseshoe-shaped valley that was later filled by glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn Also on the southern side, mud-water flow deposits have been found in the Capiza River valley and appear to relate to Coropuna;Шаблон:Sfn at least eight such debris flows have been identified.Шаблон:Sfn Lahars (mudflows) have reached the Colca River valley.Шаблон:Sfn Lahars are dangerous phenomena owing to their high speed and density, causing large scale destruction and fatalities,Шаблон:Sfn and can be generated both by volcanic and meteorological processes.Шаблон:Sfn

Lakes and rivers

A barren, rock-strewn terrain with two ice-covered mountains in the background; to the left lies a blue lake and to the right a scarp.
Coropuna seen from Lake Pallacocha

Lakes lie on the flanks of the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn These include Lake Pallarcocha on the southwestern flank on formerly glaciated terrain,Шаблон:Sfn Laguna Pucaylla on Coropuna's northeastern side and Laguna Caracara on the southeastern side. A number of streams and rivers originate on the mountain. Clockwise around Coropuna, these include Quebrada Chauqui-Huayco, Rio Amayani on the northern side, Quebrada Chinchina/Infernillo, Quebrada Jollpa, Quebrada Caspanja with the lake Laguna Caracara, Quebrada Buena Vista, Quebrada Tuallqui, Rio Testane on the southern flank, Rio de Huayllaura on the southwestern flank, Quebrada del Apacheta,Шаблон:Sfn Quebrada Sigue ChicoШаблон:Sfn and Quebrada Sepulturayoc on the western flank.Шаблон:Sfn The Rio Blanco and Rio Amayani eventually form the Rio Arma,Шаблон:Sfn while the Rio Capiza discharges water from Coropuna to the Colca River.Шаблон:Sfn During the winter dry season,Шаблон:Sfn most of these rivers do not carry substantial discharge.Шаблон:Sfn

The volcano is situated on a drainage divide.Шаблон:Sfn To the west, the Rio Arma is a tributary of the Ocoña River, while to the east, the Colca River is part of the Majes River watershed.Шаблон:Sfn An endorheic area that receives meltwater from the volcano also exists northeast from Coropuna, on Pampa PucayllaШаблон:Sfn where the lake of the same name lies.Шаблон:Sfn

Surrounding terrain

Coropuna rises Шаблон:Convert above the surrounding terrainШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn from a base elevation of Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn and about Шаблон:Convert on the southern side where the Rio Llacllaja has incised the underlying basementШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn almost to the foot of the volcano, forming sharp, amphitheatre-like valleys.Шаблон:Sfn In general, many deep valleys cut into the flanks of the volcanoШаблон:Sfn and give the mountain an "impressive topographic relief".[6]

The region is characterised by high plateaus separated by deep canyons, including some of the world's deepest gorgesШаблон:Sfn that reach depths of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Apart from river erosion, giant landslides have affected the Altiplano below Coropuna,Шаблон:Sfn such as the Chuquibamba landslide, which took place over the last 120,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years in the form of multiple collapse events within a fault-controlled basin.Шаблон:Sfn

Geomorphologically, Coropuna lies at the edge of the Altiplano high plateau on the Western Cordillera mountain range;Шаблон:Sfn in the Central Andes this mountain chain is split into two rangesШаблон:Spaced en dashthe western and the eastern CordilleraШаблон:Spaced en dashseparated by the Altiplano.Шаблон:Sfn The Pucuncho BasinШаблон:Sfn and Firura volcano lie north of Coropuna, while Solimana volcano is northwest from Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn Sara Sara is another volcano in the area.Шаблон:Sfn A large lava dome lies northwest of CoropunaШаблон:Sfn while Cerro Pumaranra, a Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn eroded volcano, is to the northeast.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Convert west-southwest from Coropuna lies the Шаблон:Convert high Antapuna,Шаблон:Sfn while the Andahua "Valley of the Volcanoes" is Шаблон:Convert east-northeast of Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn

Elevation and size

A gentle, ice-covered ridge with hump-like summits
Coropuna Este

Coropuna is the largestШаблон:Sfn and highest volcano in Peru, the highest peak of the Cordillera AmpatoШаблон:Sfn and the third-highest mountain in Peru.[2][3] The highest point of Coropuna is the northwestern dome[6]Шаблон:Sfn named Coropuna Casulla,Шаблон:Sfn with Шаблон:Convert elevation.[6][10][8] Mountaineering sources also cite an elevation of Шаблон:Convert for the El Toro summit,[11][12] which would make Coropuna the 22nd highest mountain in the Andes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn

Estimates on the height of Coropuna have changed over time. In the 19th century, it was one of the candidates for "highest mountain in Peru", with the Mapa del Perú (Map of Peru) of Antonio Raimondi giving an estimated height of Шаблон:Convert; other candidates were peaks in the Cordillera Blanca.Шаблон:Sfn In 1910 it was believed that the volcano was over Шаблон:Convert high and thus the highest mountain in South America, ahead of Aconcagua,[13][14] although a North American expedition during the preceding year had determined that Coropuna was not the highest, as they only found an elevation of Шаблон:Convert, and Huascaran is higher than this.Шаблон:Sfn Varying snow elevations might also lead to varying height estimates.[11]

Coropuna has several summits (up to ten overall according to one count)Шаблон:Sfn which exceed Шаблон:Convert elevation,Шаблон:Sfn plus a Шаблон:Convert northern summit.Шаблон:Sfn Those with individual names are the northwestern Coropuna Casulla at Шаблон:Convert,Шаблон:Sfn El Toro,[11][12] the western Nevado Pallacocha at Шаблон:Convert, the central Coropuna Central II at Шаблон:Convert,[15] Escalera at Шаблон:Convert in the western sector of the volcano, Paiche at Шаблон:Convert in the central sector,Шаблон:Sfn[7] and Coropuna EsteШаблон:Sfn and Yana Ranra at Шаблон:Convert in the eastern sector.[7]Шаблон:Sfn

Ice cap

A roughly pear-shaped ice area, from which valleys emanate, lies within a multicolored landscape, as seen from a satellite image.
Coropuna's ice cap seen from space in 2010

Coropuna features the largest ice cap of the tropics.Шаблон:Sfn As of 2014 it was Шаблон:Convert wide and Шаблон:Convert long.Шаблон:Sfn It is larger than the Quelccaya Ice Cap Шаблон:Convert farther northeast, which was considered to be the largest,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn but has since shrunk to a size less than Coropuna's.[16] A subsidiary peak named Cerro Cuncaicha, east of Coropuna, has a small ice cap as well.Шаблон:Sfn In general, Peruvian glaciers form the bulk of the world's tropical glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn The ice cap consists of three ice domes and many glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn Perennial snow fields are present on Coropuna, sometimes making it hard to measure the true extent of glaciation or glacier retreat.Шаблон:Sfn

On average, the ice cap of Coropuna is about Шаблон:Convert thick,Шаблон:Sfn with maximum thicknesses exceeding Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn In 2003Шаблон:En dash2004 the ice cap had a volume of about Шаблон:Convert snow water equivalents.Шаблон:Sfn Ice cores have been taken from the Coropuna ice capШаблон:Sfn and from a summit crater;[17] one of these ice cores covers a timespan beginning from 20,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago.Шаблон:Sfn

PenitentesШаблон:Sfn reaching heights of Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn and seracs (blocks of ice in glaciers delimited by cracks) occur on the glaciers,Шаблон:Sfn while debris cover is rare.Шаблон:Sfn Mudflows (lahars) originated from the ice capШаблон:Sfn and left deposits at the bottom of valleys.Шаблон:Sfn

Glaciers and periglacial phenomena

A number of glaciers flow down from the ice cap,Шаблон:Sfn their number variously estimated to be 15,Шаблон:Sfn 17Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and 23.Шаблон:Sfn Some glaciers have been named; on the southwestern flank two glaciers are known as Шаблон:Lang 1 and 2, three Шаблон:Lang 1 through 3 and six Шаблон:Lang 1 through 6.Шаблон:Sfn Eighteen separate accumulation areas have been found as well.Шаблон:Sfn There are no substantive valley glaciers presently on CoropunaШаблон:Sfn and some glaciers, especially in the eastern side, emanate from cirques.Шаблон:Sfn The ongoing downward movement of the ice on Coropuna produces icequakes.[8]Шаблон:Sfn

Glaciers descend to elevations of about Шаблон:Convert on the southern flank, and to about Шаблон:Convert on the northern flank.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This is higher than the freezing level, owing to the dry climate;Шаблон:Sfn the freezing level at Coropuna lies at about Шаблон:Convert elevation.Шаблон:Sfn In 2001, the ice limits were located at elevations of Шаблон:Convert on the southern and at Шаблон:Convert on the northern flank.Шаблон:Sfn

Moraines are mostly found on Coropuna's northern and southern sideШаблон:Sfn and reach lengths of Шаблон:Convert, with longer moraines on the northern flank.Шаблон:Sfn In general, moraines on Coropuna are steep and have prominent crests as they are little eroded.Шаблон:Sfn Grey-coloured, fresh moraines up to Шаблон:Convert from the ice cap may reflect the position of the glaciers before the onset of glacier retreat which has left small mounds that often contain ice between these moraines and the ice capШаблон:Sfn and small, discontinuous moraines.Шаблон:Sfn

Apart from normal glaciers, 78 rock glaciers have been counted on Coropuna, but only 11 of them are considered to be active.Шаблон:Sfn Permafrost occurs at elevations exceeding Шаблон:Convert on the southern and Шаблон:Convert on the northern flank.Шаблон:Sfn Cryoturbation,Шаблон:Sfn gelifluction, patterned grounds,Шаблон:Sfn solifluctionШаблон:Sfn and other periglacial landforms are noticeableШаблон:Sfn at over Шаблон:Convert elevation.Шаблон:Sfn

Recent area and retreat

While individual trend series of the extent of Coropuna's ice cap often heavily diverge from each other, a strong declining tendency is noticeable.
Extent of the ice cap over the years, from various sources:Шаблон:Efn

Measuring the surface area of Coropuna's ice cap is difficult as seasonal snow can be mistaken for ice,Шаблон:Sfn and different studies come to various conclusions about the retreat rate, due to the use of different time periods and methodological practices. However, all studies conclude that the net retreat trend is obvious and that the ice cap is diminishing.[18] Retreat rates shortly before 2009 reached 13Шаблон:Nbsp;per cent in only 21Шаблон:Nbsp;years.Шаблон:Sfn Between 1980 and 2014 the ice cap shrank at a rate of Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn with a 2015 estimate amounting to Шаблон:Convert,[19] and a brief slowdown observed during the late 1990s and early 2000s.Шаблон:Sfn Total shrinkage has been estimated to amount to 26Шаблон:Nbsp;per cent between 1962 and 2000, and by 18Шаблон:Nbsp;per cent between 1955 and 2007.Шаблон:Sfn Retreat is faster on the northern side of the mountain.[20]

The Coropuna ice cap retreat follows the pattern recorded elsewhere in Peru such as in the Cordillera Blanca, Cordillera Vilcanota and the mountains Ampato, Quelccaya and Sabancaya.Шаблон:Sfn All of this retreat is attributed to global warming,Шаблон:Sfn and tends to increase during El Niño years owing to a drier climate. The glaciers lose mass through both sublimation and melting.Шаблон:Sfn Ablation occurs year-round and is diurnal.Шаблон:Sfn This meltwater rarely forms streams, though some do exist. The Quebrada Ullulo on the northern side is the largest such meltwater stream.Шаблон:Sfn Recently deglaciated terrain is covered by rock debris.Шаблон:Sfn

Glacial history

Before the first human settlement of the area,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the ice cap on Coropuna was much larger than today, with its surface exceeding Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn and its glaciers descending to much lower elevations.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, glaciers also expanded from the mountains Pumaranra, Pucaylla and Cuncaicha to the east of Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn They covered the Pampa Pucaylla northeast from Coropuna and descended the Jellojello valley and other valleys to the east.Шаблон:Sfn Glacial valleys radiate from Coropuna,Шаблон:Sfn and glaciofluvial landforms are associated with moraines.Шаблон:Sfn

Regional climate oscillations are recorded in the ice masses of Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn The glacial history of the volcano has been reconstructed with tephrochronology (using dated tephra layers such as those from the 1600 Huaynaputina eruption), radiocarbon datingШаблон:Sfn and surface exposure dating using helium-3.Шаблон:Sfn Three separate moraine generations[7] and about five separate glacial stages have been recorded on the volcano.[21] Glacial advances on Coropuna appear to be synchronous to advances of the ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere.Шаблон:Sfn Glaciers developed on other mountains in the region as well.Шаблон:Sfn

Last glacial maximum

During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 25,000Шаблон:En dash20,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago,Шаблон:Sfn valley glaciers on Coropuna were considerably longer than today.Шаблон:Sfn The longest glacier, at Шаблон:Convert, was in the Quebrada Ullulo.Шаблон:Sfn The glaciers had a cover of boulders and gravel and formed tall moraines, and both lateral and terminal moraines where outlet glaciers ended. At the crest, these moraines were as much as Шаблон:Convert high, Шаблон:Convert long, and Шаблон:Convert wide.Шаблон:Sfn On the northern flank, moraine systems have been observed in the Santiago, Ullulo,Шаблон:Sfn Keaña, Queñua Ranra, Cuncaicha, Pommulca and Huajra Huire valleys,Шаблон:Sfn while the southeastern flank was covered by glaciers in the Yanaorco, Viques, Cospanja, Buena Vista Este, Buena Vista Oeste and Huasi valleys.Шаблон:Sfn Rock bars occur in some glacial valleys on the southern and southwestern side of the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn There are large cirques around Cerro Cuncaicha.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The LGM ice cap had an area of at least Шаблон:Convert, with glaciers descending to Шаблон:Convert elevation. Glacier ends were lower on the northernШаблон:Sfn and western sides, probably due to airflow-mediated variations in sublimation.Шаблон:Sfn The growth of the ice cap has been explained by a decrease of the equilibrium line altitude of about Шаблон:Convert. Assuming constant precipitation, temperatures may have decreased by Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn The glaciers began to retreat between 12,000 and 11,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago.Шаблон:Sfn

Other glacial periods

Ice has been present on Coropuna for at least 80,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years.[22] At least two pre-LGM advances spread beyond the area that was covered with ice during the LGM,Шаблон:Sfn with an expansion occurring in particular in the eastern sector of the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn Moraines older than marine isotope stage 2 are widespread.Шаблон:Sfn Those close to the village of Viraco may date back 40,000Шаблон:En dash45,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years and thus be part of an earlier glaciation,Шаблон:Sfn and old dates of 47,000Шаблон:En dash31,000 and 61,000Шаблон:En dash37,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago in the Huayllaura and Sigue Chico valleys could reflect even larger glacier expansions during marine isotope stage 3 or 4.Шаблон:Sfn

Glaciers retreated after the end of the last glacial maximum 20,000Шаблон:En dash18,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago and then re-expanded.[21] During the Late Glacial, a group of moraines formed between the position of the LGM moraines and the position of the recent moraines,Шаблон:Sfn with one lateglacial advance dated to either 13,400Шаблон:En dash10,000 or 13,900Шаблон:En dash11,900Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago.Шаблон:Sfn Full glacial conditions lasted until 10,000Шаблон:En dash9,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago;[22] minor advances took place about Шаблон:Nowrap ago, and again some 6,000 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn The late glacial advances coincide with similar glacier expansions worldwideШаблон:Sfn and some of them may correlate with the Younger Dryas cold period or the Antarctic Cold Reversal.Шаблон:Sfn During the Little Ice Age, glaciers on Coropuna did not expand much, although some rock glaciers might have formed during that time. The glaciers descended to Шаблон:Convert elevation.Шаблон:Sfn

Importance as a source of water

Glaciers in Peru are important sources of water for local communities and for hydropower generation, especially during the dry season; their shrinkage is thus of concern.Шаблон:Sfn A 2003 study by Bryan G. Mark and Geoffrey O. Seltzer estimated that about 30Шаблон:Nbsp;per cent of the dry season runoff in the Cordillera Blanca comes from glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn Meltwater from the glaciers on Coropuna sustains the baseflow of the riversШаблон:Sfn during dry periods;Шаблон:Sfn Coropuna is an important source of water for the valleys of the surrounding areas and for the desert-like piedmont,Шаблон:Sfn with an estimated 38,000 people depending directly or indirectly on water originating from it.Шаблон:Sfn This water supply is threatened by the retreat of the glaciersШаблон:Sfn and would require costly mitigation measures to compensate for its reduction. The Peruvian government is making preparations for Coropuna ceasing to be a contributor to the local water supply by 2025; a 2018 study and re-evaluation of past data concluded that the ice cap should persist until about 2120, and recommends that greater in situ monitoring of Coropuna's glaciers is needed to aid future planning and mitigation.Шаблон:Sfn Glacial meltwater has a low content of regulated metalsШаблон:Sfn while springs sometimes have very high concentrations.Шаблон:Sfn

Geology

Regional setting

South America has been a stable continent since the Paleozoic, but the whole Pacific coast is geologically very active.
The larger tectonic plates around South America

Off the coast of Peru, the Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate at a rate of Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn or Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn This subduction process, along with the subduction of the Antarctic Plate also underneath the South American Plate, is responsible for the volcanism in the Andes and the uplift of the mountain chain.[23] In the Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera) uplift commenced about 50Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago in the Eocene, paused until 25 millionШаблон:Nbsp;years ago in the Oligocene, and increased substantially after about 10Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago in the Miocene.Шаблон:Sfn Andean uplift in the area of Coropuna is ongoing.Шаблон:Sfn

Coropuna is part of the volcanic arc of southern PeruШаблон:Sfn and is considered to be a member of the Barroso volcanic arc.Шаблон:Sfn There are over six hundred volcanoes in southern Peru,Шаблон:Sfn and the entire Cordillera Occidental from southern Peru to northern Chile is covered with volcanic rocks, although present-day volcanic activity is scarce.Шаблон:Sfn Many of the older volcanoes are deeply eroded by glaciation, while younger volcanoes often still resemble cones.Шаблон:Sfn

Volcanic activity in the Andes occurred during three eras. The first was between 195 and 190Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago in the Early Jurassic, and generated the Chocolate Formation. The second between 78 and 50Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago (Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene) generated the Toquepala Formation and the Andean batholiths.Шаблон:Sfn Volcanic activity in southern Peru commenced about 13Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago in the Miocene.Шаблон:Sfn One volcanic unitШаблон:Spaced en dashafter being folded and erodedШаблон:Spaced en dashwas covered by a second lava and tuff unit, which in turn was followed by the emplacement of large volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn Ignimbrites and stratovolcano activity, at times subdivided into a "rhyolitic" and an "andesitic" formation, alternated.Шаблон:Sfn

Basement

Coropuna is constructed atop of 14Шаблон:Nbsp;million year old ignimbritesШаблон:Sfn and lava flows of Neogene age.Шаблон:Sfn Individual ignimbrites crop out mainly in valleys; on the highlands they are buried beneath more recent volcanic products.Шаблон:Sfn The volcanic basement includes the Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene Tacaza, Huaylillas, Sencca and Barroso Formations; the latter formation includes Coropuna itself. Below these formations lie the sedimentary Murco and Socosani formations and the Yura Group, which are sediments of Jurassic-Cretaceous age with intruded plutons of the same age; finally there is a Basal Complex of Precambrian age.Шаблон:Sfn

Faults and lineaments

The basement is cut by faults and lineaments such as the Viraco-San Antonio Fault that crosses the edifice,Шаблон:Sfn Pampacolca Fault on the southern side of the volcano and the Pumaranra and Cerro Casulla lineaments,Шаблон:Sfn which trend southeastШаблон:En dashnorthwest and northeastШаблон:En dashsouthwest, respectively. One east–west lineament may have influenced the recent volcanism;Шаблон:Sfn the alignment of Coropuna with Sara Sara, Solimana and El Misti may indicate a tectonic control on the volcano in general.Шаблон:Sfn On the southern flank, Holocene normal faults have offset lava flows and streams.Шаблон:Sfn

Composition

The rocks released by Coropuna are dark brown to black and porphyritic.Шаблон:Sfn They consist of andesite,Шаблон:Sfn dacite,Шаблон:Sfn rhyodacite,Шаблон:Sfn rhyolite,Шаблон:Sfn trachy-basaltic andesite, trachyandesite and trachydacite.Шаблон:Sfn The more recent lava flows have been daciticШаблон:Sfn or trachydacitic.Шаблон:Sfn Phenocryst phases include amphibole, biotite, plagioclase, pyroxene and titanomagnetite.Шаблон:Sfn Aside from the volcanic rocks, deposits of salts, sulfur and travertine produced by hot springs are found on the southern flank.Шаблон:Sfn

The volcanic rocks define a calc-alkalineШаблон:Sfn potassium-rich suite which resembles that ofШаблон:Sfn ChileanШаблон:Sfn and Peruvian volcanoes such as Tutupaca.Шаблон:Sfn They contain large amounts of rubidium, strontium and barium.Шаблон:Sfn Complicated processesШаблон:Sfn of crystallisation and interaction with Earth's crust appear to have produced the magma.Шаблон:Sfn

Eruption history

The beginning of Coropuna's growth has variously been placed over 5Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago,Шаблон:Sfn during the PlioceneШаблон:Sfn or late Miocene, but most of its structure developed during the Quaternary.Шаблон:Sfn Volcanic activity has been subdivided into two stages: explosive eruptions during the now mostly eroded Coropuna I stage produced volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows and pumice but also lava flows, while Coropuna II above Шаблон:Convert elevation erupted lava flows from the now snow-covered vents.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The existence of a Coropuna III sequence has been proposed.Шаблон:Sfn The most recent eruption products have been described as the "Andahua Group".Шаблон:Sfn About 5.3Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago, the Sunjillpa volcano was active southwest from Coropuna,[7] while Cunciacha east of Coropuna is of lower PleistoceneШаблон:Sfn and Pumaranra of Pliocene to Quaternary age.Шаблон:Sfn

A major ignimbrite eruption took place about 2Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago at Coropuna; its deposits have been identified west of the volcanoШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and it led to the destruction of the edifice, which later re-formed on the remains of the old volcano.Шаблон:Sfn The occurrence of explosive eruptions during a mostly effusive activity has been found at Chachani and Sara Sara as well.Шаблон:Sfn

In addition, the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite, the Lower Sencca Ignimbrite[24] and the Chuquibamba (HuaylillasШаблон:Sfn) IgnimbriteШаблон:Sfn may have originated here as well;Шаблон:Sfn the latter was produced by a volcanic explosivity index 7 class "super-eruption"Шаблон:Sfn between 14.3 and 13.2Шаблон:Nbsp;million years ago in the Middle Miocene.Шаблон:Sfn The Upper Sencca Ignimbrites are a Шаблон:Nowrap years oldШаблон:Sfn composite ignimbriteШаблон:Sfn which form a Шаблон:Convert thick apron around Coropuna and other regional volcanoes; Coropuna appears to have formed on top of one of the Upper Sencca Ignimbrite vents.Шаблон:Sfn

After a hiatus,Шаблон:Sfn volcanic activity continued into the Pleistocene.Шаблон:Sfn Several lava flows on the western and central sides of Coropuna have been dated, yielding ages ranging from Шаблон:Nowrap to Шаблон:Nowrap ago.[7] During the last glacial maximum, Coropuna was inactiveШаблон:Sfn and moraines buried its lava flows.Шаблон:Sfn However, oneШаблон:Sfn or two tephra layers on a moraine close to the village of Viraco on the southern side have been dated to be about 41,000 and 30,000Шаблон:Spaced en dash31,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years old. These ages correspond to radiocarbon ages of Шаблон:Nowrap and Шаблон:Nowrap. These tephras may have originated in fissure eruptions associated with the three recent lava flows.Шаблон:Sfn In postglacial times lava bombs, lapilli and volcanic ash were deposited on previously glaciated terrain.Шаблон:Sfn Pumice deposits may have formed during the Holocene.Шаблон:Sfn

Holocene

No eruptions of Coropuna during historical[25] or modern times are known,Шаблон:Sfn and the volcano was considered to be long-extinct.Шаблон:Sfn However, young-lookingШаблон:Sfn ʻaʻā lavaШаблон:Sfn or block lavaШаблон:Sfn flows erupted during the Holocene and in part overlie late-glacial moraines.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Their vents are now hidden beneath glacier ice,Шаблон:Sfn and the flows have been affected by later glacial advances.Шаблон:Sfn These lava flows are found on the westШаблон:En dashnorthwest, southШаблон:En dashsoutheast and northeast side of the mountain:Шаблон:Sfn

The ages of the flows indicate an eastward shift in activity.[22] The southeasterly and northeasterly flows may have been erupted within 500 years from the same fissure,Шаблон:Sfn while the eruption of the northwesterly flow might be a consequence of the retreat of the ice cap.Шаблон:Sfn These lava flows are the most recent manifestation of volcanic activityШаблон:Sfn and they imply that Coropuna is still active;Шаблон:Sfn it is thus considered to be a dormant volcano, rather than an extinct one.Шаблон:Sfn There is no evidence of Holocene tephras in peat bog drill coresШаблон:Sfn and volcanism at Coropuna since the last ice age has been primarily effusive.Шаблон:Sfn

Present day status

Файл:Steam vents on Coropuna Este (30293366136).jpg
Steam rising on Coropuna Este

The volcano is still hydrothermally active.Шаблон:Sfn Six hot springs are found on Coropuna, mostly on the southeastern foot,Шаблон:Sfn such as at Acopallpa, Antaura/Antauro, Viques, Ccollpa/Collpa, Buena Vista and Aguas Calientes and, on its northern flank, at Huamaní Loma. Their water temperatures range between Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn With the exception of the last two, which are situated in glacial terrain, these hot springs rise within valleys via rock fractures.Шаблон:Sfn Geochemical analyses of the water from these springs published in 2015 show no major variations in composition, implying a stable volcanic system.Шаблон:Sfn Whether solfataric or fumarolic activity occurs at Coropuna is unclear,[6]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and the thick glaciation indicates that the summit craters have no thermal activity.Шаблон:Sfn A lahar took place on the southeastern flank on 22 December 2016, causing damage to water infrastructureШаблон:Sfn and pastures below the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn

Some of the hot springs on Coropuna are used for bathing.Шаблон:Sfn The volcano had been considered a potential site for geothermal power production,[27] but research published in 1998 concluded that the available energy of the Coropuna area was insufficient.Шаблон:Sfn

The first volcano activity report published in 2018 noted ongoing seismic activity involving volcano-tectonic earthquakes.[8] Seismic swarms were observed at Coropuna after the 2001 southern Peru earthquakeШаблон:Sfn and were possibly triggered by that earthquake.Шаблон:Sfn Observations of deformation of the volcanic edifice have shown that gravitational instability and soil water absorption result in movements of part of the volcano but, as a whole, Coropuna shows no evidence of volcanic deformation.Шаблон:Sfn

Hazards and monitoring

The Peruvian Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico (INGEMMET) monitors Coropuna for activity. It uses data such as the composition of hot spring watersШаблон:Sfn and the shape of the volcano as estimated by satellite images,Шаблон:Sfn GPS and geodesy,Шаблон:Sfn as well as information from five seismic stations.[10] Seismic monitoring of the volcano began in 2008-2010 and was supplemented with geophysical monitoring in 2018.Шаблон:Sfn A volcanic hazard mapШаблон:Sfn and scenarios of lahar generation have been published,Шаблон:Sfn the Peruvian government publishes regular status reports.[28] The Peruvian Geophysical Institute considers Coropuna a "high risk" volcano;Шаблон:Sfn about 90,000 people live in risk areas,[10] and the sites most in danger are towns in the steep southern valleys.Шаблон:Sfn

Together with El Misti, Sabancaya and Ubinas, Coropuna is considered to be one of Peru's most dangerous volcanoes.Шаблон:Sfn The presence of a large ice cap,Шаблон:Sfn and therefore the risk of incandescent volcanic rocks melting that ice, creates a hazard of lahars, or mudflows, such as those that in 1985 killed over 23,000 people at Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The risk to life is further increased by Coropuna's steep slopes and by the concentration of people in nearby valleys.Шаблон:Sfn The terrain around the volcano has one of the greatest topographic reliefs in the world and a number of towns lie on the floor of the Majes valley, right down to the Pacific Ocean where the district capital CamanáШаблон:Sfn with 20,000 inhabitants is situated.[25] Although there is no evidence of past mudflows of such size, lahars could reach as far as the coast,Шаблон:Sfn affecting a number of townsШаблон:Sfn and infrastructure such as roads, antennas and small hydropower plantsШаблон:Sfn in the provinces Condesuyos, Castilla and Camaná.Шаблон:Sfn According to the 2007 census, 110,481 people lived in the provinces that span Coropuna and lie downstream of it.Шаблон:Sfn

Lava flows are also a potential danger at Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn Other hazards with lesser probabilities are directed volcanic blasts, lava dome collapses,Шаблон:Sfn fast-moving massive pyroclastic flowsШаблон:Sfn and flows of pumice and volcanic ash,Шаблон:Sfn lava bombsШаблон:Sfn and shock waves from volcanic explosions.Шаблон:Sfn

Climate

Precipitation

Coropuna lies between the semi-humid Altiplano and the arid western slope of the Andes.Шаблон:Sfn Its climate is semi-arid, with precipitation at Шаблон:Convert elevation reaching Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Other reported precipitation values range between Шаблон:ConvertШаблон:Sfn and Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Lower down the mountain, at altitudes between at Шаблон:Convert, annual precipitation levels increase to between Шаблон:Convert (semi-humid). Even further down, at altitudes around Шаблон:Convert, they decrease again to Шаблон:Convert (desert).Шаблон:Sfn Cold water brought from Antarctica along the Pacific Ocean by the Humboldt Current,Шаблон:Sfn the presence of a stable anticyclone Шаблон:Sfn and of a temperature inversion over the Pacific, and the Andean rainshadow are all responsible for this dryness.Шаблон:Sfn

Most precipitation falls as hail or snow.Шаблон:Sfn This happens mostly during the summerШаблон:Sfn wet season, between December and March,Шаблон:Sfn when the ITCZ moves southШаблон:Sfn and a summer monsoon is active over South America.Шаблон:Sfn Most precipitation is brought by easterly winds coming from the Amazon and the Atlantic Ocean, whereas the westerly winds that dominate during the dry season do not carry much moisture.Шаблон:Sfn Thus, humidity generally decreases in a westward direction.Шаблон:Sfn

The amount of precipitation is modulated by the El Niño Southern Oscillation. During phases of El Niño, the weather is drier, snow cover smaller and glacier retreat increases.Шаблон:Sfn[29] Over longer timespans, precipitation in the region increases whenever iceberg discharge and cooling occur in the North Atlantic. This was the case during the Heinrich events and the Younger Dryas when lakes formed on the Bolivian Altiplano: The Sajsi formed about 25,000–19,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago, Tauca about 18,000–14,000 and Coipasa 13,000–11,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago.Шаблон:Sfn Cold periods in the Southern Hemisphere such as the Antarctic Cold Reversal between 14,500 and 12,900Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago may have pushed the polar front north and increased precipitation as well.Шаблон:Sfn That increased precipitation may have delayed the retreat of Coropuna's glaciers after the end of the last glacial maximum.Шаблон:Sfn Coropuna experienced moist conditions during the early Holocene, whereas the late Holocene beginning 5,200Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago was drier there,Шаблон:Sfn with a pronounced dry period lasting from 5,200 to 3,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago.[30]

Temperature

Temperatures decrease with altitude gain, and at lower elevations around Шаблон:Convert they average Шаблон:Convert. Between Шаблон:Convert they average Шаблон:Convert and at Шаблон:Convert elevation they average Шаблон:Convert. At altitudes above Шаблон:Convert they remain below freezing.Шаблон:Sfn Temperatures fluctuate more over daily timescales than over seasonal ones when measured close to the glaciers.Шаблон:Sfn Southerly cold waves can sometimes reach Coropuna, leaving traces in ice cores in the form of southern pollen.Шаблон:Sfn During the Little Ice Age, at Шаблон:Convert elevation temperatures decreased to Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Warm fluctuations between about 2,200 and 900Шаблон:Nbsp;years ago, plus a cold fluctuation between around 970 to 1010 AD, are also recorded.Шаблон:Sfn

Vegetation, fauna and agriculture

Cushion-shaped plants grow in a wide rock-strewn valley.
Yareta on Coropuna

Most of the region is covered by puna grassland, with the exception of isolated Polylepis woods to the southwest of the volcano, plus other different vegetation types to the west and southeast.Шаблон:Sfn Peat bogs are present on the southern and southwestern sides of Coropuna, and some of these have been drilled to obtain sediment cores.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn There are several private conservation areas around the volcano.Шаблон:Sfn Elsewhere, agriculture is widespread around Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn Insects such as beetles and hymenopterans, birds such as the Andean condor,Шаблон:Sfn fish, and mammals such as the alpaca, llamaШаблон:Sfn and vicuña occur in the region.Шаблон:Sfn Several new species of butterfly have been discovered there.[31]

The mountain has several distinct vegetation belts:

Archaeology and religious importance

Numerous archaeological sites lie on Coropuna, especially at the southern and northern bases of the volcano and on its western slope.Шаблон:Sfn Among these are funerary towers known as chullpas.[32] Some of these western sites are on the ice cap.Шаблон:Sfn Proposals have been made to make the area of Coropuna including these archaeological sites into a protected area.[33]

The coastal regions of Peru were first occupied 11,000 and 9,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years BC.Шаблон:Sfn Evidence of the presence of hunter-gatherers near Coropuna first appear in the archaeological record in the caves of Cavalca and Pintasayoc, respectively north and south of the volcano. In the latter cave, rock paintings interpreted as dating to 7,000Шаблон:Spaced en dash3,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years BC have been found.Шаблон:Sfn The first human activity at Coropuna in the Cuncaicha cave north of the volcano began 12,300Шаблон:Spaced en dash11,100 years ago,[34] shortly after the final retreat of glaciers from the mountain.Шаблон:Sfn The region around the volcano was settled over the last 4,000Шаблон:Nbsp;years.Шаблон:Sfn

Inca times

A larger number of archaeological sites go back to the 2nd Intermediate PeriodШаблон:Sfn and during the Inca era. The Inca expanded preexisting irrigation and terrace systems which are in part still existing today.Шаблон:Sfn These include the highest irrigation system in the world,[35] which was possibly constructed on Coropuna to allow the cultivation of bitter potatoes.[36] Inca sites are often found at higher elevations than the sites left by preceding civilisations; the highest one is located at Шаблон:Convert elevation,Шаблон:Sfn and there is evidence of Inca presence to Шаблон:Convert elevation.[35] In addition, an important branch of the Inca road system passes by the western foot of Coropuna.[35] The region was densely populated; the close location of the mountains and favourable climatic conditions facilitated its settlement.Шаблон:Sfn

As noted by Spanish chroniclers[37] such as Pedro Cieza de León,Шаблон:Sfn Coropuna played an important role in Inca religion, and an important temple was situated there,Шаблон:Sfn possibly at Maucallacta.Шаблон:Sfn Pedro Cieza de León considered Coropuna to be the fifth most important holy site of the Inca empire.Шаблон:Sfn One archaeological site on the volcano may have been a stopover for religious ceremonies to its summit.Шаблон:Sfn Capacocha, a form of human sacrifice, were offered to the mountain;[37] reportedly, in 1965, a mummy was found there.[38]

Maucallacta and Acchaymarca

Among the archaeological sites at Coropuna is the important Inca site of Maucallacta, on the southwestern flank of the mountain.Шаблон:Sfn Some of the structures there were built to evoke the appearance of the mountain.Шаблон:Sfn A royal residence, an oracle and a political unit were associated with Maucallacta,Шаблон:Sfn and the oracle of Coropuna would have answered the rulers' queries all year round.Шаблон:Sfn The Maucallacta site was probably the most important one at Coropuna; the western summit today known as "La Niña" was apparently also significant.Шаблон:Sfn

Another important site associated with Coropuna is Acchaymarca, to the west of the mountain,Шаблон:Sfn where about 280 Inca stone structures have been found.Шаблон:Sfn It is likely that many pilgrims came there for ceremonies honouring the apus of Coropuna and Solimana.Шаблон:Sfn

Mythology, religion and legends

In the Inca Empire, Coropuna was a sacred mountain,Шаблон:Sfn especially for the people of Cotahuasi.[3] It was regarded as the apu of the southern region,[35] and the second-most important in the cosmology of the Andes.[2] The mountain was considered to be an abode of the deadШаблон:Sfn – a large village where holy people received the souls of the departed, who lived there in the afterlife,[2]Шаблон:Sfn and that could be accessed through caves.[39] On the way on to the mountain, the souls are judged for their treatment of domestic animals and kitchen utensils. In Huaquira District mythology, the exhalations of the souls yield underground lakes, which return water to the living.[40] In different mythologies Coropuna is instead the starting point for the deceased on a journey to Surimana.Шаблон:Sfn Coropuna and Solimana are often paired.[41] Sometimes Coropuna is seen as a male entity while Solimana volcano is seen as a female one.[42] Local people continue to observe these ancient mortuary rites today.[2]

An enduring Franciscan influence from a colonial-era Cusco friary, the "pious among today's Peruvian peasantry" revere a "Flying" St Francis of Assisi, who is believed to await the souls of the dead on top of Coropuna.[43] Other poorly recorded legends are associated with Coropuna.Шаблон:Sfn One story narrates how a brother tried to deceive Coropuna and other mountains, and was turned into a deer.[44] Another legend tells of a conflict between Coropuna and other local mountains against an interloping Inca.[45] A third story states that a troupe was transporting precious metals for Coropuna and Solimana when the animal leading it was shot by a hunter; the mountains then castrated the hunter.[46]

Climbing

The archaeological findings made on Coropuna indicate that the Inca may have reached the summit.[47] Annie Peck and Hiram Bingham III each reached a summit of Coropuna in 1911; Peck raised a banner saying "Votes for Women" on the summit she had ascended, which was slightly lower than the one reached by Bingham[48] a little later.[49] This banner action was part of the women's suffrage campaigns that were taking place at that time, and meant to illustrate that women were just as capable as men of physical deeds.[50] Bingham's ascent determined that Coropuna was not the highest summit of South America.[49] Since then, other summits of the mountain have been ascended as well.[15]

The rugged area offers mountaineering opportunities.[3] Coropuna is normally ascended from Laguna Pallarcocha, from where a route along the western rib and glacier slopes leads up to a fore-summit and then to the main summit. Along this way, a high camp can be set up at Шаблон:Convert elevation. An ascent of Coropuna would normally be a three-day trip, and on the French adjectival climbing scale the route is graded as Facile (F). Pallarcocha itself can be reached from a road that begins in the town of Chuquibamba.[11]

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Further reading

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:Andean volcanoes Шаблон:Authority control

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Holmer1960 не указан текст
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Trawick2003 не указан текст
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MINCETUR2019 не указан текст
  4. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Wilson2009 не указан текст
  5. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Besom2010 не указан текст
  6. ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок GVP не указан текст
  7. ↑ 7,0 7,1 7,2 7,3 7,4 7,5 7,6 7,7 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Mapa2017 не указан текст
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 8,2 8,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок IGdP2018 не указан текст
  9. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Yates2013 не указан текст
  10. ↑ 10,0 10,1 10,2 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MdA2019 не указан текст
  11. ↑ 11,0 11,1 11,2 11,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Biggar2015 не указан текст
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок AAC1990 не указан текст
  13. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Bingham2010 не указан текст
  14. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Bandelier1910 не указан текст
  15. ↑ 15,0 15,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Hernandez2013 не указан текст
  16. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок NOAA2018 не указан текст
  17. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Lin2018 не указан текст
  18. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Veettil2017 не указан текст
  19. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Kochtitzky2015 не указан текст
  20. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Pellitero2022 не указан текст
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок GSA2007 не указан текст
  22. ↑ 22,0 22,1 22,2 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок ÚbedaPalacio2012 не указан текст
  23. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Stern2004 не указан текст
  24. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Çubukçu2012 не указан текст
  25. ↑ 25,0 25,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок DeggChester2005 не указан текст
  26. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок GVPP не указан текст
  27. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок DiazHuaina1988 не указан текст
  28. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MdA2019b не указан текст
  29. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Kochtitzky2016 не указан текст
  30. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Escobar-Torrez2018 не указан текст
  31. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Larico2018 не указан текст
  32. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Duchesne2005 не указан текст
  33. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Goicochea2009 не указан текст
  34. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок MeinekatMiller не указан текст
  35. ↑ 35,0 35,1 35,2 35,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Chávez2001 не указан текст
  36. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Orellana2017 не указан текст
  37. ↑ 37,0 37,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Woloszyn2010 не указан текст
  38. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Schobinger1999 не указан текст
  39. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Luna2021 не указан текст
  40. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок FitzsimmonsShimada2015 не указан текст
  41. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Sharon2021 не указан текст
  42. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Golte2004 не указан текст
  43. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Lara2013 не указан текст
  44. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Campos2018 не указан текст
  45. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Menaker2019 не указан текст
  46. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Gose1986 не указан текст
  47. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Echevarria1980 не указан текст
  48. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Smith2004 не указан текст
  49. ↑ 49,0 49,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Ricker1981 не указан текст
  50. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Schultz2010 не указан текст
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Coropuna&oldid=14075372