Английская Википедия:Corsairs of Algiers
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Infobox military unit The ta'ifa of raïs (Шаблон:Lang-ar, community of corsair captains) or the Raïs for short, were Barbary pirates based in Ottoman Algeria who were involved in piracy and slave trade in the Mediterranean Sea from the 16th to the 19th century. They were an ethnically mixed group of seafarer, including mostly "Renegades" from European provinces of the Mediterranean and the North Sea, along with a minority of Turks and Moors. Such crews were experienced in naval combat thus making Algiers a formidable pirate base. Its activity was directed against the Spanish empire, but it did not neglect the coasts of Sicily, Sardinia, Naples or Provence. It was the Taifa which, through its captures, maintained the prosperity of Algiers and its finances.
The corsair taifa of Algiers reached the zenith of its power in the first half of the seventeenth century as an Ottoman military elite theoritically. Up until 1626, the Algerian corsair admiral (Kapudan-rais) was invested by the ottoman sultan and was subordinate to the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman empire. Often being former Christian slaves and having been promoted in the ta'ifa's chain of command, the admirals and their corsairs were a powerful military and political force in the regency of Algiers, and could even challenge the authority of the Pasha and the Odjak Janissary corps.
Pirates or Privateers ?
State institution
The establishment of the Regency of Algiers by the Barbarossa brothers gave the Muslim corso a solid territorial base, which was organized in its beginnings as self-defence as well as a holy war; described as al-jihad fi'l-bahr (holy war at sea) against the Spanish Empire and the Christian Knights who continued the work of the crusades.[1] In the days of Hayreddin Barbarossa and his immediate successors, the raïs were an integral part of the Ottoman navy, but in the 17th century they had become a distinct group.[2] Unlike in Ottoman Tunisia, where privateers were allowed to equip their own piratical ships, piracy in Ottoman Algeria was a monopoly of the state. The Kapudan-raïs (admiral, hierarchical chief of all the reïs), or captain of vessels, was often, after the Pasha, the most important person in the Diwan of Algiers.Шаблон:Sfn Thus, the corso became a permanent institution in the Regency of Algiers, and its main income was included in the state budget. Enriching those who cared for it and returning to the treasury one-fifth of the catch, the corso effectively created the state of Algiers,[3] and was essential to its existence, which all the efforts of the government tended to develop. It was also the activity upon which the economical and political prosperity of the Odjak as well as its religious prestige to a great extent depended.[4]
Legal status
European authors continued to view the Ottoman Regencies as 'dens of pirates' and their actions as "African banditry", but France, the Dutch Republic and England all concluded peace treaties with the North African Regencies in the 17th century. These treaties prompted legal theorists in Europe to change their views about the general status of the regencies. Hugo Grotius would implicitly admit that Algiers exercised the Jus ad bellum of a sovereign power through its corsairs. The treaties were also influential in the development of the law of the sea and The Law of Nations.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Irish lawyer Charles Molloy wrote in 1682 regarding those shifts in dealing with : "Pirates that have reduced themselves into a Government of State, as those of Algier, Sally, Tripoli, Tunis, and the like" and should not "obtain the rights of solemnities of war." He added:[5]
In 1737, Dutch jurist and legal theorist Cornelius van Bynkershoek wrote:
Thus, corsaing acquired both religious and legitimate dimentions which in turn gave it an international dimention that negated the faithless and lawless nature of piracy upon Algerian and other barbary corsairs.[6]
French historian Dianel Panzac, although admitting that the barbary corsairs hardly differed in their methods from pirates that were still distinguishable by their "black flag, an uncertain nationality, the vandalising of the ship, and especially the killing of the crew in order to leave no trace", nevertheless respected the administrative and diplomatic frameworks that North African regencies were bounded with, which is why the barbary warships were classified as privateering vessels and not pirate ships.[7]
Corsair State of Algiers
General characteristics
The Ottoman sultan issued a firman ('royal decree') appointing a ruler to govern Algiers. This governor might held the rank of Beylerbey, then Pasha, and his initial appointment was usually for three years, after which it could be extended or cancelled. The sultan expected obedience from the ruler, particularly in matters of foreign policy; an annual financial tribute to Istanbul; and to be provided with ships and men for his fleets when they were demanded. Otherwise the ruler was given a free hand to govern as he saw fit.[8] In practice, the Rais and the Odjak acted autonomously and the Pasha gradually lost his power.[9] After the Odjak revolution in 1659, the ruler would be elected and the sultan would only confirm this election as a sign of legitimacy, without however having any effective rule over Algiers.[10]
The Regency government, which quickly became a naval power, turned its main activities towards the sea. From the 16th century, the growing volume of international trade, the succession of political crises leading to armed conflicts, the territorial appetites of certain States and the tendencies towards hegemony in the Mediterranean made the constitution and maintenance of an active navy essential, capable of defending a determined policy, which could be comprised as maintaining the following:[3]
- Defense of the territory, particularly the coastline,
- Support for the Muslims of Spain attacked by the religious fanaticism of their conquerors,
- Presence alongside the Ottoman Sultan in face of his adversaries,
- Control of the navigation to know friends from enemies,
- Leading the corso war against Europe.
Chain of command
The ruler would be guided by a Divan - a council of government - while another council known as a "tai'fa" was charged with naval or privateering matters. This tai'fa consisted of the port's senior privateering captains, led by the regency's Kapudan Rais or local admiral (also known as the 'Rais al bahriyya' or Captain of the Marine').[8] Direct access to the Pasha gave the privateering captains considerable influence in the regency. The ruler was also advised by an Agha, or the commander in chief of the Algieran janissary Odjak, whose duties included the annual collection of taxes and ensuring the security of the regency. The Agha also controlled the administration of the city of Algiers and its surroundings (known as Dar-Es-sultan), and also presided over deliberations of the Divan.[11] Meanwhile, the Kapudan Rais supervised foreign affairs, and also administed the port of Algiers. Other lesser officials oversaw various aspects of the regency's administration, including the operation of the slave-markets, trade within the regency and the policing of the city. As the regency's legal framework was based on the Sharia, the Pasha was advised by two muftis, and justice was usually swift and severe.[8] In theory the same draconian system applied on the regency's ships and privateers when they were at sea; but in practice, the Kapudan Rais, the tai'fa and individual captains were largely left to govern their own affairs.Шаблон:Sfn
While the original holders of the title of Kapudan Rais were usually Turks or leading local privateers, by the 17th century the post was frequently held by a European renegade.[12] The Kapudan Rais had a headquarters building near the harbour, and from there he and a small staff of clerks supervised the movement of all merchant shipping, as well as the activities of privateers and any regency warships. Before a privateering captain could put to sea he had to obtain permission to sail from the Kapudan Rais, and collect a renewed 'letter of marque' from the tai'fa. This council established cruising areas in advance, and often the duration of cruises. If the vessel was a galley or galiot, however, the lack of space for water, provisions, captives or plunder naturally meant that cruises were of fairly short duration. Once these permissions were granted the captain hoisted a green flag at his masthead to indicate that he was about to sail on a corso, and his crew would embark, accompanied in many cases by a detachment of the regency's janissaries.[13]
Christian renegade corsairs
The community of corsair captains had become penetrated by adventurers from many parts of the Mediterranean area. Non-Turks who came to Algiers as captives of the Algerian corsairs gained admittance to the ta'ifa of raïs through conversion to Islam and by virtue of their knowledge of the areas the corsairs raided.Шаблон:Sfn The rank of Raïs or commander of a corso vessel, was obtained only after an examination passed before the council of raïs, chaired by the captain (admiral) position reserved for the oldest of the raïs, who no longer sailed. Another captain, chosen by the council, commanded the fleet. The rais was the absolute master on board, where the most rigorous discipline reigned.Шаблон:Sfn
The influx of "Renegades", or converts of European origin who brought their knowledge of European coasts and navigation, as well as the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain, who also imported valuable knowledge in the construction of frigates and brigantines, were important factors that brought growth to the fleet and the corso. Based in Cherchell, they knew the Spanish coastline, thus around the 1570s, the corso took on the aspect of a private enterprise, even if public investments were allocated to arsenals and ports under pressure from the community and the privateers.[14]
According to Diego de Haedo, the fleet of Algiers (including the vessels based at Cherchell) consisted, in 1581, of 35 galliotes - including 2 of 24 benches, 1 of 23 benches, 11 of 22 benches, 8 of 20 benches, 10 of 18 benches, 1 of 19 benches, and 2 of 15 benches — and about 25 frigates (small rowing and undecked vessels), from 8 to 13 benches. More than two thirds of the Algiers galiotes are commanded by European renegades (6 Genoese, 2 Venetians, 2 Albanians, 3 Greeks, 2 Spaniards, 1 French, 1 Hungarian, 1 Sicilian, 1 Neapolitan, 1 Corsican and 3 of their sons).[15] All these renegades occupy the key positions, after the founder of the regency of Algiers, Hayreddin Barbaroassa, it is the Sardinian renegade Hasan Agha (1535-1543), the Corsican Hassan Corso (1549-1556), the Calabrian Uluj Ali Pasha (1568-1571) who ended up with the title of admiral of the fleet, then the Venetian Hassan Veneziano (1577-1580 and 1582-1583).[16] They also took part in the armies of occupation of the subjected zones like local governments before the creation of the three beyliks; of the 23 territorial bosses, 13 are renegades or sons of renegades. Haedo would be able to say :[17]
In the early 17th century, Algiers also became, along with other North African ports such as Tunis, one of the bases for Anglo-Turkish piracy. The peace in Europe forced the Norse privateers to shift their field of activity to the Mediterranean and to serve the enemies of Algiers. Yet many of those privateers converted to Islam and were enlisted in the Algerian corsair Navy. As a result of this privateer spill, international piracy activity in the region has intensified to an unprecedented degree.[1] There were as many as 8,000 renegades in the city in 1634.[18][19]
A contemporary letter states:
Algerian corsair fleet
The Algerians armed in war those of the captured merchant ships which seemed fit for the corso, and also bought ships in Europe. They also had construction sites, located in Bab-el-Oued for large buildings, in Bab-Azoun for those of smaller dimensions. Christian slaves were employed on these shipyards, and the management of which was often entrusted to renegades, even to free Christians as captains of armament or engineers of naval constructions, who hired their services for a time, without being for that put in the obligation to change religion. The masts, yards, sails, ropes, powder, ammunition, artillery pieces, were supplied by the government of the Ottoman Porte and by certain minor powers of Europe, the latter in the form of tribute.[20]
Earlier flotilla
At the beginning of the 17th century, Algiers' pirate fleet numbered 100 ships and employed 8,000 to 10,000 men. The piracy "industry" accounted for 25 percent of the workforce of the city, not counting other activities related directly to the port. The fleet averaged 25 ships in the 1680s, but these were larger vessels than had been used the 1620s, thus the fleet still employed some 7,000 men.[21]
The introduction of round ships by the Flemish corsair Zymen Danseker and the arrival of expelled Moriscos from Spain contributed strongly to the development of the fleet of Algiers,[2] which would have been modernized and enlarged,[22] it numbered as follows:
- In 1625, the corsair fleet included six Galleasses, a large number of brigantines and a hundred Galleyes, more than sixty of them were equipped with 24 to 40 guns.[15]
- In 1630, there were about 70 ships in the port of the capital, with what the Algerians owned from the French years prior, and
- in 1632, 13 galleys were found in the port, all of which were driven by oars, and 70 others with sails, and 23 boats of 30 to 50 cannons.
- In 1634, Algerian fleet consisted of 70 pieces, each of which was armed with between 25 and 40 cannons.
- In 1657, the number decreased to 23 ship, and each ship included 30 to 50 cannons.
- In 1662, there were 22 barges and nine galleys in the capital, and in 1681 there were only 17 barges in the port of Algiers and two large ships with heavy weapons of 112 cannons. These 17 ships were mentioned by their names in the report of sieur hayet, among them: the Golden Mare, the Rose, the little Rose, the city of Algiers, the Marzouk, the Canaria.[23]
- On the consul's Fiolle report, He says that in 1686: "The ship called "the Golden Rose" was armed with 40 cannons, the "Seven Stars" with 30 cannons, the "Golden Lion" equipped with 32 cannons, and that there were also on this date, 10 ships with two bridges, each containing 30 cannons, and 10 single-barreled ships, each containing 14 cannons, sometimes reaching 20. There were also two ships with two bridges containing 45 cannons and a fire equipped with 20 cannons, and five other ships, two of them with 50 cannons, two with 30 cannons, and besides that, there were 39 ships for transport and trade".
- It came in the report of Dr. Duke de Grafton dated on October 14, 1687, that the number of Algerian ships in the diversity of their forms and the difference in weight and their cargo amounted to 60 ships, which had 570 cannons in total.[23]
In the 18th century the number of Algerian ships diminished and was varying from 20 to 30 ships and were mostly Xebecs armed with 12 to 32 cannons.
- During the Barbary Wars the said number increased in 1802 to 66 barges, each with between 25 and 80 long-range cannons
- In 1815, the number decreased to 41 ships, and there were only five battleships, the General Consul of the United States of America William Shaler tells about the Algerian Navy in 1815: "The Algerian fleet was composed of five frigates with 38 to 50 cannons and five corvettes".
- In 1816, four barges and 30 ships, Gouthrot says on that date only two battleships of 50 to 60 cannons, two corvettes with five cannons, two barges of 80 cannons, four galleys of 15 to 26 cannons, and one ship of 20 cannon type "polacre", and 35 ship.
- In 1820, 32 ships numbering 368 cannons.[24]
Among these ships were the well-known "Al-Marikana", the famous "Mashouda" and the 44 cannon captured vessel "Portuguesa", the latter was captured by Rais Hamidou from the Portuguese navy in May 1802 and there were 282 prisoners on its deck, then it was lost and others were burned when Lord admiral Exmouth attacked Algiers in 1816. There are also names for other ships, such as Miftah al-Salam, Dik al-Marsa, Guide to Alexandria, and others from what the Algerian Navy seized, so it left them with the names known by them before.[23]
How the corsairs operated
Jihad against Spain: Barbary galleys in the Mediterranean
During the greater part of the 16th century; maritime wars were undertaken with fleets of thirty to forty galleys.[25] The Barbary galleys formed the Western Naval Division of the Ottoman fleets. Their special function was to harm the hereditary enemy, Spain, by ravaging its coasts, landing unexpectedly in enemy territory, sacking villages and towns like in Lipari, Naples and Genoa[26] and carrying off their inhabitants into captivity. The Spanish watch towers and syndicats of defense could not hold off the corsairs in Cullera and Villajoyosa, and so the tierras maritimas (coastal lands) were deserted.[27]
Attacks on Christian and especially Catholic shipping, with slavery for the captured, became prevalent in Algiers and were actually the main industry and source of revenues of the Regency.[18] The corsairs targeted the Spanish commerce, they cut maritime communications with spanish domains in Italy by boarding christian vessels, capturing crews and cargoes and taking the whole lot back to Algiers, thus enriching it at the expanse of Spanish trade.[27]
The severe discipline and care, made the Algiers galley an instrument of war of the first order; the damage that the rais caused to the enemies of the ottoman sultan was so important that spanish benedictin and historian Diego de Haëdo (1555-1613) would say:[28]
Шаблон:BlockquoteAlgerian corsairs provided much needed help to the attempted rebellion of the Moriscos. In this long war, the raïs of Algiers had no rivals; They showed incessant ardor and temerity almost always crowned with success. At a signal from the Sultan, they were seen running forward and fighting in the front ranks, as in Bejaïa, Malta, Lepanto and Tunis, where they acquired the well-deserved reputation of being the best and bravest sailors in the Mediterranean.[29] French publicist Louis-Joseph Collette de Baudicour wrote:[30]Шаблон:Blockquote
Atlantic razzias: Hunt for enemy merchant ships
The legendary heroes of Ottoman Algeria were Ra'ises (captains of corsair ships) such as Murat Rais the Elder in the 1580s and Hamidou Raïs at the turn of the 19th century. These were men who distinguished themselves through audacious attacks on Christian ships and bringing important prizes to Algiers.[31]
The Mediterranean was at first the main objective of the action of the corsairs, the raïs rose in the ocean as soon as they had adopted the use of round vessels. Exploring then the roads of India and America, they disturbed the commerce of all enemy nations. In 1616, Rais Mourad the Younger (Jan Janszoon) plundered the coasts of Iceland, from where he brought back to Algiers 400 captives. In 1619 the corsairs ravaged Madeira. In 1631, they sacked Irish Baltimore, blocked the English Channel, and would make catches in the North Sea towards the 1650s.Шаблон:Sfn[22] Algerian pirates naval warfare was intelligent and flexible, but its countermeasures were incredibly clumsy. The Algerians used Xebecs, fast-sailed galleys, to attack individual merchant ships when there was no wind. Algerians usually hid five to seven Xebecs behind a large cliff near the coast, each with at least 100 soldier. A clifftop lookout spotted the European ships and signaled them to approach. Europeans usually surrender quickly when faced with a much superior attacking force. In the case of defense, they usually expected only the death of many sailors and certain defeat.[32]
The raïs pushed the audacity so far as to found in Livorno,[2] with the authorization of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, to whom they paid high royalties, a penal colony warehouse, where they came to deposit under the guard of the soldiers of the Grand Duke, the Christian slaves likely to obtain their freedom by means of a ransom. They still had a station at Cape Verde in order to be nearer to stopping the Indian galleons. The Republic of Genoa tolerated for a very long time the traffic in its ports of goods coming from the looting of the rais.Шаблон:Sfn
The spoils of the Corsairs multiplied in the first period of the regency, then began to decrease until they almost disappeared in the eighteenth century, then by the end of the deys period they witnessed a remarkable growth with the attempt to develop the navy and increase its military activity, especially during the period of Europe's preoccupation with the wars of the French Revolution and the conquests of Napoleon. The renewed activity of the Algerian Navy was linked to the efforts of famous sailors, led by Rais Hamidou (1790-1815). the aquittance to the development of the naval spoils from which the state used to take the fifth and distribute the rest to the shipowners who contributed to equipping the fleet is got by reviewing the number of spoils according to the following years:[33][34]
- 1556 : 28 ships were captured near Malaga and 50 others near Gibraltar strait
- 1608 - 1621 : Nearly 1000 European ships were captured, among them 447 of Dutch nationality, 193 were French, 120 were Spanish, 60 English vessels, and 50 ships from various German principalities, and more than 12,000 people were enslaved.[35]
- 1619 - 1627 : More than 20,000 people were captured by the corsairs
- 1628 - 1634 : 80 ships were captured during the war against France comprising 1331 people, which made the value of the total spoils in that war rise to about 4,752,000 pounds. Pere dan estimated the value of seazed cargos around 20,000,000 francs, while one million people were enslaved in Algiers.
- 1737 - 1799 : the rais took over 376 ships. In 1785, some Genoese, Venetian and Neapolitan ships were captured, their spoils estimated at 75,000,000 francs. In 1793, 11 American ships were captued and 100 American sailors were enslaved, then 16 Portuguese ships were captured by Rais Hamidou in 1797 along with 118 prisoners.
- 1800 - 1802 : The number of spoils was estimated at 575,152 francs, and 20 ships were seized, of which 19 were Neapolitan, in addition to another Portuguese ship seized by Rais Hamidou, equipped with 44 cannons, and its value was estimated at 194,231.25 francs.
- 1805 - 1815 : The value of spoils was estimated at 8 million francs, of which 1800 were prisoner with 30 ships. A truce in 1810 was followed by the treaty of 1813 with Portugal, in which 541 Portuguese prisoners were ransomed for 850,000 Algerian doro
- 1825 : The number of spoils reached eight ships, mostly Dutch, Spanish and English, with an estimated value of about 770415.74 francs.
- 1817 - 1827 : the value of spoils was approximately 700,000 francs, with 26 greek ships seazed.
Corsair city of Algiers
Defences
In 1529, Hayreddin Barbarossa seized the Peñon facing the city of Algiers from the Spanish and linked the rock to the port by building the pier.[36] This allowed Algiers to become a secure port for naval and corsair companies in the Mediterranean. The city quickly became the main base for corsairs in the Mediterranean.[37] This domination enabled him to repel several attacks from a certain number of European countries, in particular, in October 1541, that of Charles V, whose troops were defeated by the forces of the regency under the command of Hassan Agha, well aided by the storm which destroyed a good part of the enemy fleet.
In response Hassan Agha ordered the construction of a large artillery piece which was designed in the foundries of Dar Ennahas, near the Bab El Oued gate in 1542, by a Venetian master builder in the pay of the beylerbey of Algiers, Hassan Agha. The cannon was placed during the completion of the "Kheir Eddine pier" at the end, on the Bordj Amar.[38]
Oruç Barbarossa built a new kasbah A little above the former Berber Kasbah. was Hayreddin and his successors reconstructed the wall surrounding the town of 36 to 42 feet high and some one and a half miles in length, which were constructed of unbaked brick bonded with good mortar and resting on a substructure of concrete. The sea-front, though thick and high, was not solid enough to resist massive assaults. The wall had accordingly been protected by a moat some 20 to 26 feet deep and 37 to 48 feet across, and had been reinforced by square towers and slightly projecting bastions.[39] Two more important works protected Khair al-Din's The breakwater and the Fishery Arsenal were protected by the parapet which was crenellated and pierced with embrasures for muskets and cannon. Access to the town was by five main gates. The Bab Jdid or New Gate was to the south-west and at the foot of the kasbah, and Bab Azoun was to the south, the most important since people came in by it from the countryside and it was linked by a long mercantile street with the Bab al-Oued to the north. The 'Island' or 'Holy War' gate (Bāb al-Jazira or Bab al-Jihad), through which the raïs passed, opened on to the mole, and finally the 'Fish', 'Fishery' or 'Customs' Gate (Bab Es-serdin), opened on to the road leading up from the harbour.[39]
Outside the wall several forts supplemented the seafront fortifications. The 'Eulj 'Ali burj, built in 1568-1569 and known as the 'fort of the twenty-four hours', guarded the Bab al-Oued beach. On the landward side the approaches to the town were defended by the fort known as the 'Star', built above the kasbah in 1568, and the Emperor Fort (Sultan Kalassi) built facing south between 1545 and 1580 on the site of the camp of Charles V.[40]
Urban area
In the confined space enclosed within the walls white houses were grouped closely together with terraces rising in tiers, their overhangs supported on beams jutting so far out over the narrow streets as sometimes to join those across the way, thus forming a ceiling of corduroy or of groined vaulting. It was not until the end of the fifteenth century that the rais built their costly dwellings in the lower town.[40] In Algiers, as in the other Barbary ports, the captains tended to maintain houses in the western part of the city, close to the kasbah, with their crews quartered close by. This was a precaution against any attack by political or domestic opponents, and it helped to ensure that the community of privateers formed an identifiable political and social bloc in the city.[13] These new constructions modified the outward aspect of the town, which remained a Maghribi city, although the greater part of the inhabitants were not of the Maghrib. Likewise, the interior arrangement of some rich houses was no longer of a Maghribi style. According to Diego de Haëdo, about the year 1580 there were a hundred mosques, chapels or zawiyas, not one of which survives. There were 'prayer halls with parallel naves and pitched tile roofs'.[41]
Christian captives
When a corsair ship returned to Algiers towing its booty, goods and captives were landed. The pasha would begin to take his share, or a fifth, in addition to the body and tackle of the captured ship, then, the cargo is sold. The slaves not chosen by the pasha were led into the Badestan, a long street closed at its ends, located at the site of the current street of Mahon square in Algiers. There, brokers ran the captives naked, so that the buyers could make their choice. Half of the proceeds from these sales belonged to the outfitting of the capturing vessel: individual, company, rais himself; the other half was divided into shares, of which forty went to the captain, thirty to the Agha of the Janissaries on board, ten to the officers, the rest to the sailors and the soldiers.Шаблон:Sfn
Until the use of round vessels in the 17th century, which did away with oars, the rais composed the crews of their galleys, which were generally very low on water, with slaves whom they bought for this purpose, or whom they were procured by capture at sea, or by descent on the Christian coast. The rowers were tied to their benches; there were as many as 300 on a single vessel. When, at the beginning of the 17th century, navigation was practiced entirely by sail, the employment of slaves on corso ships diminished in notable proportions; but the raïs always employed some for the works of strength: turning with the capstan, the towing of the boats, care of cleanliness of the ships, etc.Шаблон:Sfn
Number of slaves
The number of european christians who fell into captivity in the city of Algiers alone was estimated at about one million people throughout the seventeenth century, equivalent to a quarter of the city's population, numbering at that time about 100,000 people. In the four Beylik prisons that were established specifically for this purpose since 1607, and most of these prisoners were released in exchange for a certain ransom, and some of them converted to Islam, a number of 8000 converted to Islam in 1634 out of a total of 35,000 prisoners, and some of them were integrated into the population and became an active element in society like many of the beleyrbeys who assumed power before the era of the pashas.[42] As for the work that these prisoners carried out, they were divided into social services and economic tasks within the city of Algiers, and agricultural work in the city of Algiers. The number of prisoners varied from year to year. As evidenced by the following table extracted from European sources, which presents aggregate estimates for the city of Algiers according to the following years:[33]
| Year | Number of prisoners | Authors | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1580 | 25,000 | Haedo | |
| 1598 | 15,000 | Magini | |
| 1620 | 35,000 | Gramaye | |
| 1634 | 25,000 | Pere Dan | During the war with the King of France (1630 - 1634), 1331 prisoners were captured on the back of 80 French ships |
| 1640 | 30,000 to 40,000 | Aranda | Including those who were in the prisons of Ali Bitchin Reis |
| 1662 | 40,000 | Auvry | |
| 1683 | 35,000 to 40,000 | Pétis de la Croix | |
| 1700 | 8,000 to 10,000 | Comelin | |
| 1729 | 9,000 to 10,000 | Fau | |
| 1785 | 6000 | Venture de Paradis | |
| 1816 | 1642 | De Grammont | 2000 freed by Lord Exmouth |
| 1830 | 122 | Rozet |
Among the most famous of these prisoners are:[42]
- French scientist Petrus Gyllius, captured in the year 1546 while traveling from France to Greece on a scientific mission at the request of King Francis I of France.
- Dominique de Gourgues, the hero of Florida County, captured while traveling from Europe to America (1558).
- Famous Italian painter Fra Filippo Lippi de Madone, imprisoned in 1435
- Italian writer Emmanuel d'Aranda de Bruges, captured while traveling from France to Spain in 1640.
- French comic poet, who wrote the story known as the beautiful Provençal, Jean-François Regnard, captured in 1678.
- Famous Spanish writer Miguel de Cervantes (the author of the story of Don Quixote) and the author of the moriscan plays inspired by his memories in Algeria, he remained in captivity in Algeria from 1575 to 1580.
- French scientist Jean Foy-Vaillant was captured in 1674, when he was on a scientific trip to study money, commissioned by King Louis XIV.
- Italian cleric, the priest of the city of Catania, called Caraccioli, captured in 1561.
- Italian poet Antonio Veneziano, captured along with Don Carlo Davagona in April 1578.
- Writer Rene de Bois (Rene de Boys), captured in 1642.
Privateers and enslavement of Christians originating from Algiers were a major problem throughout the centuries, leading to regular punitive expeditions by European powers. Spain (1567, 1775, 1783), Denmark (1770), France (1661, 1665, 1682, 1683, 1688), England (1622, 1655, 1672), all led naval bombardments against Algiers.[18] Abraham Duquesne fought the Barbary pirates in 1681 and bombarded Algiers between 1682 and 1683, to help Christian captives.[44]
Emblems
- Maritime standards of the Regency of Algiers dating from the 18th century
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Regency war standard from John Beaumont's album (1705).[45]
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Pavilion of the dey of Algiers according to the album by John Beaumont (1705).[45]
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Type of maritime flag of the regency of Algiers.[46]
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Example of a flag used by corsairs of the Algiers regency.[46]
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Example of a flag used by corsairs of the Algiers regency.[46]
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Type of maritime flag of the regency of Algiers.[47]
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A pavilion of the regency of Algiers[48]
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A standard of the regency of Algiers[49]
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Pavilion of the Regency of Algiers (17th-18th centuries)(B. Dubreuil)
Gallery
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A French Ship and Barbary Pirates by Aert Anthoniszoon and Cornelis Bol
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A Sea Fight with Barbary Corsair by Laureys a Castro (1664–1700)
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Spanish engagement with Barbary pirates by Andries van Eertvelt (1590–1652)
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An English Ship in Action with Barbary Vessels by Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633–1707)
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A Spanish xebec facing two Algerian corsair galiots by Ángel Cortellini Sánchez
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Barbary corsairs in action, by Niels Simonsen (1844)
References
Works cited
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 8,0 8,1 8,2 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Albert Devoulx, "La marine de la régence d'Alger", Revue africaine, no 77, septembre 1869, p390
- ↑ Pierre Boyer, "Les renégats et la marine de la Régence d'Alger", Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, vol. 39, no 1, 1985, p94DOI10.3406/remmm.1985.2066Шаблон:Dead link
- ↑ Pierre Boyer, "Les renégats et la marine de la Régence d'Alger", Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, vol. 39, no 1, 1985, p95DOI10.3406/remmm.1985.2066Шаблон:Dead link
- ↑ 18,0 18,1 18,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Gregory Hanlon. "The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560-1800." Routledge: 1997. Pages 27-28.
- ↑ 22,0 22,1 Шаблон:Harvnb
- ↑ 23,0 23,1 23,2 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 27,0 27,1 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Jamil M. Abun Nasr(1971), A History Of The Maghrib In The Islamic Period, p159
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 33,0 33,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936 by Martijn Theodoor Houtsma p. 258 [1] Шаблон:ISBN
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 39,0 39,1 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ 40,0 40,1 Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ Шаблон:Harvsp
- ↑ 42,0 42,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 45,0 45,1 45,2 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 46,0 46,1 46,2 46,3 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ B. Dubreuil, Les pavillons des États musulmans, Publications de la Faculté des lettres et des sciences humaines de Rabat, 1965, Шаблон:P..
- ↑ Karl-Heinz Hesmer: Flaggen und Wappen der Welt, page 18. Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh 1992
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