Английская Википедия:Dargwa language
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Infobox language
Dargwa (Шаблон:Lang, dargan mez) is a Northeast Caucasian language spoken by the Dargin people in the Russian republic Dagestan. It is the literary and main dialect of the dialect continuum constituting the Dargin languages.[1]
Classification
Dargwa is part of a Northeast Caucasian dialect continuum, the Dargin languages. The four other languages in this dialect continuum (Kajtak, Kubachi, Itsari, and Chirag) are often considered variants of Dargwa. Korjakov (2012) concludes that Southwestern Dargwa is closer to Kajtak than it is to North-Central Dargwa.[2]
Geographic distribution
According to the 2002 Census, there are 429,347 speakers of Dargwa proper in Dagestan, 7,188 in neighbouring Kalmykia, 1,620 in Khanty–Mansi AO, 680 in Chechnya, and hundreds more in other parts of Russia. Figures for the Lakh dialect spoken in central Dagestan[3] are 142,523 in Dagestan, 1,504 in Kabardino-Balkaria, 708 in Khanty–Mansi.Шаблон:Verify source
Phonology
Consonants
Like other languages of the Caucasus, Dargwa is noted for its large consonant inventory, which includes over 40 phonemes (distinct sounds), though the exact number varies by dialect. Voicing, glottalization (as ejectives), fortition (which surfaces as gemination), and frication are some of the distinct features of consonants in Dargwa. Particularly noteworthy is the inclusion of an epiglottal ejective by some dialects such as Mehweb, which it may be the only language in the world to use phonemically.[4]
- Present in the literary standard of Dargwa, but not some other dialects.
- Present in some dialects, but not the literary standard.
- The source is rather ambiguous in its using the term "laryngeal" for a presumed column of consonants that includes both a "voiced" and a "glottalized" plosive. A voiced glottal plosive cannot be made, because the glottis needs to be closed, and an ejective consonant requires an additional closure further up the vocal tract. Pending clarification, this row has been transcribed here as an epiglottal column and a glottal stop, both found in many other East Caucasian languages.
Vowels
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | Шаблон:IPAlink | Шаблон:IPAlink | |
| Mid | Шаблон:IPAlink | Шаблон:IPAlink | |
| Open | Шаблон:IPAlink |
The Dargwa language features five vowel sounds /i, e, ə, a, u/. Vowels /i, u, a/ can be pharyngealized as /iˤ, uˤ, aˤ/. There may also be a pharyngealized mid-back vowel [oˤ] as a realization of /uˤ/, occurring in the Megeb dialect.[4]
Orthography
The current Dargwa alphabet is based on Cyrillic as follows:
| А а | Б б | В в | Г г | Гъ гъ | Гь гь | Гӏ гӏ | Д д | Е е | Ё ё | Ж ж | З з |
| И и | Й й | К к | Къ къ | Кь кь | Кӏ кӏ | Л л | М м | Н н | О о | П п | Пӏ пӏ |
| Р р | С с | Т т | Тӏ тӏ | У у | Ф ф | Х х | Хъ хъ | Хь хь | Хӏ хӏ | Ц ц | Цӏ цӏ |
| Ч ч | Чӏ чӏ | Ш ш | Щ щ | Ъ ъ | Ы ы | Ь ь | Э э | Ю ю | Я я |
The Latin alphabet of the 1920s is not supported by Unicode, but is approximately:[5]
a ʙ c ç ꞓ d e ə f g ǥ ƣ h ħ ⱨ i j k ⱪ l m n o p ᶈ q ꝗ r s ꞩ ş t ţ u v w x ҳ ӿ z ƶ ⱬ ƶ̧
(The letter transcribed here ⱨ ⱪ ᶈ ҳ ⱬ might have cedillas instead of hooks; the printing in sources is not clear.)
Writing system comparison chart
Compiled from:[6]
| Modern Cyrillic |
Latin c. 1930 |
Uslar | Arabic (1920—1928) |
Arabic (before 1920) |
IPA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| А а | A a | а | ا ,آ | آ | a |
| Б б | B b | б | ب | b | |
| В в | V v | w | و | w | |
| Г г | G g | г | گ | ڮ | g |
| Гъ гъ | Ƣ ƣ | ӷ | غ | ʁ | |
| Гь гь | H h | h | ﻬ | h | |
| ГӀ гӀ | Ⱨ ⱨ | ꜧ | ع | ʕ | |
| Д д | D d | д | د | d | |
| Е е | E e, je | e | اه | - | e, je |
| Ё ё | - | ɵ | |||
| Ж ж | Ƶ ƶ | ж | ژ | ج | ʒ |
| З з | Z z | з | ز | z | |
| И и | I i | i | اى | - | i |
| Й й | J j | j | ى | ي | j |
| К к | K k | кᷱ | ک | k | |
| Къ къ | Q q | к | ڠ | ق | q: |
| Кь кь | Ꝗ ꝗ | q | ق | q̇ | |
| КӀ кӀ | Ⱪ ⱪ | қ | گ | kʼ | |
| Л л | L l | л | ل | l | |
| М м | M m | м | م | m | |
| Н н | N n | н | ن | n | |
| О о | O o | о | او | - | o |
| П п | P p | п | پ | ف | p |
| ПӀ пӀ[comm. 1] | ҏ[comm. 2] | ԥ | ڢ | ب | pʼ |
| Р р | R r | р | ر | r | |
| С с | S s | с | س | s | |
| Т т | T t | т | ت | t | |
| ТӀ тӀ | T̨ t̨ | ҭ | ط | t’ | |
| У у | U u | у | او | و | u |
| Ф ф | F f | - | ف | f | |
| Х х | X x | х | خ | χ | |
| Хъ хъ | Ӿ ӿ | k | څ | ق | q |
| Хь хь | Ҳ ҳ | h ͫ | ݤ | x: | |
| ХӀ хӀ | Ħ ħ | h ̆ | ح | ћ | |
| Ц ц | S̵ s̵ | ц | ڝ | ژ | ʦ |
| ЦӀ цӀ | Ⱬ ⱬ | წ | ڗ | ژ | ʦ’ |
| Ч ч | C c | ч | چ | tʃ | |
| ЧӀ чӀ | Ç ç | ჭ | ج | چ | ʧ’ |
| Ш ш | Ş ş | ш | ش | ʃ | |
| Щ щ | şş | - | ʃː | ||
| Ъ ъ | - | ء | - | ʔ | |
| Ы ы | - | ɨ | |||
| Ь ь | - | ||||
| Э э | E e | - | اه | - | e |
| Ю ю | ju | - | ju | ||
| Я я | Ә ә, ja | œ | أ | - | ja |
| - | Ⱬ̵ ⱬ̵ | ђ | ڞ | - | t͡s |
| - | Ӡ ӡ | - | |||
| - | є[comm. 2] | - | ڃ | چ | |
| - | g̵[comm. 2] | гᷱ | ݢ | - | |
Grammar
Verb
TAM
Assertive (finite) forms
| TAM CATEGORY | MEANING | ASPECT | MODIFIER | PREDICATIVE MARKER | NEGATION | EXAMPLE |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DERIVED FROM THE PROGRESSIVE STEM ( BASIC STEM + -a) | ||||||
| Present | 1. all types of present situations including actual and habitual situations, 2. historic present, 3. close future: the speaker‘s intention | IPF | [-ti] | PERSON / PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b) | reduplication or negative auxiliary | anwar-ri kaRar luk’-a–ca=b (Anwar is writing a letter) |
| Past Progressive | a progressive situation in the past | IPF | -ti | PAST (–di) | it uč’-a-Ti–di (He was reading) | |
| DERIVED FROM THE PRETERITE STEM ( BASIC STEM + -ib/-ub/-ur/-un): | ||||||
| Aorist | any completed action in the past | PF | - | PERSON (–da/–di) | negative auxiliary | |
| Imperfect | unspecified imperfective meaning in the past (both durative and multiplicative situations) | IPF | - | PERSON (–da/–di) | hin ha.ruq-ib | |
| Perfect | perfect (a completed action whose results are still presently actual) | PF | - | PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b) | jabu-l hin d=er{-ib–ca=d (The horse has drunk up the whole of the water) | |
| Pluperfect | a completed action in the past preceding another past action | PF | -li | PAST (–di) | ||
| *Evidential Present | 1. inference from non-trivial results of a situation that still exist at the moment of speech 2. subject resultative: | IPF | - | PERSON/PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b) | jabu hinni b=u{-ib–ca=b (The horse has had a drink of water) | |
| *Evidential Past | 1. inference from non-trivial results that existed in the past subject resultative in the past | IPF | -li | PAST (–di) | ||
| Resultative | resultative (state of the patient) | - | -li | PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b) | jabu mura-l b=uK-un-ni–ca=b 'The horse has eaten its fill of hay.‘ | |
| Experiential | experiential | - | -ci | PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b) | ni}a-la }a=b b=uZ-ib-ti–ca=b d=eqel juz-i d=elk'-un-ti ̳There have been in our village those who had written many books'. | |
| Habitual Past | a habitual action in the past | IPF | -a-d-i, -a-T-i, -iri/-ini or -aj | no separable predicative morphemes | reduplication | harzamina b=urs-iri di-la waba-l 'My mother used to tell (this story).‘ |
| DERIVED FROM THE OBLIGATIVE STEM ( BASIC STEM + -an): | ||||||
| Future | all types of future situations | IPF | - | PERSON/FUTURE(–da/–di/-ni) | negative auxiliary | |
| Obligative Present | a situation that the speaker believes necessary to be realized | IPF * | - | PERSON /PRESENT (–da/–di/–ca=b) | negative auxiliary | |
| Obligative Past | an irreal situation that the speaker believes necessary to have been realized in the past | IPF * | - | PAST (–di) | ||
| DERIVED FROM THE HYPOTHETICAL STEM ( BASIC STEM + -iZ-): | ||||||
| Hypothetical Present | a possible action in the future | - | - | PERSON(–da/–di) | reduplication or negative auxiliary | |
| Hypothetical Past | a past situation that did not take place, but is treated by the speaker as having been possible under certain conditions | - | - | PAST (–di) | ||
| Irrealis | used in the apodosis of the irreal conditional clauses | IPF | - | PAST (–di) | reduplication | |
Kadar dialect
The Kadar dialect (G'adaran lug'at / Гъадаран лугъат) with 18,000 speakers is a dialect of the Northern Dargin languages, one of the Dargin languages, which is characterized by specific phonetic, morphological, lexical and syntactic features. It is traditionally regarded as a single dialect of Dargwa.[8][9] The vocabulary layer of the Kadar dialect includes words borrowed from Arabic, Persian, Russian and especially Turkic.[10]
References
Notes
Bibliography
- Z. G. Abdullaev: Darginskij jazyk (3 Vol.). Moskau 1993. (in Russian)
- Z. G. Abdullaev: Darginskij jazyk Шаблон:Webarchive. In: Jazyki narodov SSSR. Vol. 4. Moskau 1967. (in Russian)
- Karl Bouda: Die darginische Schriftsprache. (= Beiträge zur kaukasischen und sibirischen Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. 4). Leipzig 1937.
- Helma van den Berg: Dargi folktales. Oral stories from the Caucasus. With an introduction to Dargi Grammar. Leiden 2001.
- Michael Daniel, Nina Dobrushina, Dmitry Ganenkov (eds.): The Mehweb language: Essays on phonology, morphology and syntax. Language Science Press, Berlin 2019, Шаблон:ISBN. Open Access langsci-press.org DOI:10.5281/zenodo.3374730
External links
- An online dictionary of Sanzhi Dargwa (in Dictionaria), by Diana Forker
- Appendix:Cyrillic script
- Dargin language Шаблон:In lang
- Consonant Systems of the North-East Caucasian Languages
- Dargwa basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
- Sanzhi Dargwa DoReCo corpus compiled by Diana Forker and Nils Norman Schiborr. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and - for some texts - time-aligned morphological annotations.
Шаблон:Incubator Шаблон:Languages of Russia Шаблон:Northeast Caucasian languages Шаблон:Languages of the Caucasus Шаблон:Authority control
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Nina R. Sumbatova, Rasul Osmanovič Mutalov. "A Grammar of Icari Dargwa". Lincom GmbH, 2003
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
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