Английская Википедия:De materia medica

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Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Infobox book

Шаблон:Lang (Latin name for the Greek work Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transl, both meaning "On Medical Material") is a pharmacopoeia of medicinal plants and the medicines that can be obtained from them. The five-volume work was written between 50 and 70 CE by Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek physician in the Roman army. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted by revised herbals in the Renaissance, making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history and pharmacology books.

The work describes many drugs known to be effective, including aconite, aloes, colocynth, colchicum, henbane, opium and squill. In all, about 600 plants are covered, along with some animals and mineral substances, and around 1000 medicines made from them.

Шаблон:Lang was circulated as illustrated manuscripts, copied by hand, in Greek, Latin and Arabic throughout the mediaeval period. From the 16th century on, Dioscorides' text was translated into Italian, German, Spanish, and French, and in 1655 into English. It formed the basis for herbals in these languages by men such as Leonhart Fuchs, Valerius Cordus, Lobelius, Rembert Dodoens, Carolus Clusius, John Gerard and William Turner. Gradually these herbals included more and more direct observations, supplementing and eventually supplanting the classical text.

Several manuscripts and early printed versions of Шаблон:Lang survive, including the illustrated Vienna Dioscurides manuscript written in the original Greek in 6th-century Constantinople; it was used there by the Byzantines as a hospital text for just over a thousand years. Sir Arthur Hill saw a monk on Mount Athos still using a copy of Dioscorides to identify plants in 1934.

Book

Файл:ViennaDioscoridesAuthorPortrait.jpg
Dioscorides receives a mandrake root. Vienna Dioscurides manuscript, early 6th century.
Файл:ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg
Blackberry. Vienna Dioscurides, early 6th century
Файл:NaplesDioscuridesMandrake.jpg
Mandrake (written Шаблон:Lang in Greek capitals). Naples Dioscurides, 7th century.
Файл:Arabic herbal medicine guidebook.jpeg
Cumin and dill from an Arabic book of simples (Шаблон:Circa) after Dioscorides

Between 50 and 70 AD, a Greek physician in the Roman army, Dioscorides, wrote a five-volume book in his native Greek, Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transl, "On Medical Material"), known more widely in Western Europe by its Latin title Шаблон:Lang. He had studied pharmacology at Tarsus in Roman Anatolia (now Turkey).Шаблон:Sfn The book became the principal reference work on pharmacology across Europe and the Middle East for over 1,500 years,[1] and was thus the precursor of all modern pharmacopoeias.[2][3]

In contrast to many classical authors, Шаблон:Lang was not "rediscovered" in the Renaissance, because it never left circulation; indeed, Dioscorides' text eclipsed the Hippocratic Corpus.[4] In the medieval period, Шаблон:Lang was circulated in Latin, Greek, and Arabic.[5] In the Renaissance from 1478 onwards, it was printed in Italian, German, Spanish, and French as well.Шаблон:Sfn In 1655, John Goodyer made an English translation from a printed version, probably not corrected from the Greek.Шаблон:Sfn

While being reproduced in manuscript form through the centuries, the text was often supplemented with commentary and minor additions from Arabic and Indian sources. Several illustrated manuscripts of Шаблон:Lang survive. The most famous is the lavishly illustrated Vienna Dioscurides (the Juliana Anicia Codex), written in the original Greek in Byzantine Constantinople in 512/513 AD; its illustrations are sufficiently accurate to permit identification, something not possible with later medieval drawings of plants; some of them may be copied from a lost volume owned by Juliana Anicia's great-grandfather, Theodosius II, in the early 5th century.[6] The Naples Dioscurides and Morgan Dioscurides are somewhat later Byzantine manuscripts in Greek, while other Greek manuscripts survive today in the monasteries of Mount Athos. Densely-illustrated Arabic copies survive from the 12th and 13th centuries.[7] The result is a complex set of relationships between manuscripts, involving translation, copying errors, additions of text and illustrations, deletions, reworkings, and a combination of copying from one manuscript and correction from another.[8]

Шаблон:Lang is the prime historical source of information about the medicines used by the Greeks, Romans, and other cultures of antiquity. The work also records the Dacian names for some plants,Шаблон:Sfn which otherwise would have been lost. The work presents about 600 medicinal plants in all, along with some animals and mineral substances, and around 1,000 medicines made from these sources.[9]Шаблон:Sfn Botanists have not always found Dioscorides' plants easy to identify from his short descriptions, partly because he had naturally described plants and animals from southeastern Europe, whereas by the 16th century his book was in use all over Europe and across the Islamic world. This meant that people attempted to force a match between the plants they knew and those described by Dioscorides, leading to what could be catastrophic results.Шаблон:Sfn

Approach

Each entry gives a substantial amount of detail on the plant or substance in question, concentrating on medicinal uses but giving such mention of other uses (such as culinary) and help with recognition as considered necessary. For example, on the "Mekon Agrios and Mekon Emeros",Шаблон:Sfn the opium poppy and related species, Dioscorides states that the seed of one is made into bread: it has "a somewhat long little head and white seed", while another "has a head bending down"Шаблон:Sfn and a third is "more wild, more medicinal and longer than these, with a head somewhat long—and they are all cooling."Шаблон:Sfn After this brief description, he moves at once into pharmacology, saying that they cause sleep; other uses are to treat inflammation and erysipela, and if boiled with honey to make a cough mixture. The account thus combines recognition, pharmacological effect, and guidance on drug preparation. Its effects are summarized, accompanied by a caution:Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Blockquote

Dioscorides then describes how to tell a good from a counterfeit preparation. He mentions the recommendations of other physicians, Diagoras (according to Eristratus), Andreas, and Mnesidemus, only to dismiss them as false and not borne out by experience. He ends with a description of how the liquid is gathered from poppy plants, and lists names used for it: chamaesyce, mecon rhoeas, oxytonon; papaver to the Romans, and wanti to the Egyptians.Шаблон:Sfn

As late as in the Tudor and Stuart periods in Britain, herbals often still classified plants in the same way as Dioscorides and other classical authors, not by their structure or apparent relatedness but by how they smelt and tasted, whether they were edible, and what medicinal uses they had.[10] Only when European botanists like Matthias de l'Obel, Andrea Cesalpino and Augustus Quirinus Rivinus (Bachmann) had done their best to match plants they knew to those listed in Dioscorides did they go further and create new classification systems based on similarity of parts, whether leaves, fruits, or flowers.[11]

Contents

The book is divided into five volumes. Dioscorides organized the substances by certain similarities, such as their being aromatic, or vines; these divisions do not correspond to any modern classification. In David Sutton's view the grouping is by the type of effect on the human body.Шаблон:Sfn

Volume I: Aromatics

Volume I covers aromatic oils, the plants that provide them, and ointments made from them. They include what are probably cardamom, nard, valerian, cassia or senna, cinnamon, balm of Gilead, hops, mastic, turpentine, pine resin, bitumen, heather, quince, apple, peach, apricot, lemon, pear, medlar, plum and many others.Шаблон:Sfn

Volume II: Animals to herbs

Volume II covers an assortment of topics: animals including sea creatures such as sea urchin, seahorse, whelk, mussel, crab, scorpion, electric ray, viper, cuttlefish and many others; dairy produce; cereals; vegetables such as sea kale, beetroot, asparagus; and sharp herbs such as garlic, leek, onion, caper and mustard.Шаблон:Sfn

Volume III: Roots, seeds and herbs

Volume III covers roots, seeds and herbs. These include plants that may be rhubarb, gentian, liquorice, caraway, cumin, parsley, lovage, fennel and many others.Шаблон:Sfn

Volume IV: Roots and herbs, continued

Volume IV describes further roots and herbs not covered in Volume III. These include herbs that may be betony, Solomon's seal, clematis, horsetail, daffodil and many others.Шаблон:Sfn

Volume V: Vines, wines and minerals

Volume V covers the grapevine, wine made from it, grapes and raisins; but also strong medicinal potions made by boiling many other plants including mandrake, hellebore, and various metal compounds, such as what may be zinc oxide, verdigris and iron oxide.Шаблон:Sfn

Influence and effectiveness

In Europe

Шаблон:Further

Файл:Dioscorides De Materia Medica Spain 12th 13th century.jpg
Шаблон:Lang in Arabic, Spain, 12th–13th century

Writing in The Great Naturalists, the historian of science David Sutton describes Шаблон:Lang as "one of the most enduring works of natural history ever written"Шаблон:Sfn and that "it formed the basis for Western knowledge of medicines for the next 1,500 years."Шаблон:Sfn

The historian of science Marie Boas writes that herbalists depended entirely on Dioscorides and Theophrastus until the 16th century, when they finally realized they could work on their own.Шаблон:Sfn She notes also that herbals by different authors, such as Leonhart Fuchs, Valerius Cordus, Lobelius, Rembert Dodoens, Carolus Clusius, John Gerard and William Turner, were dominated by Dioscorides, his influence only gradually weakening as the 16th-century herbalists "learned to add and substitute their own observations".Шаблон:Sfn

Early science and medicine historian Paula Findlen, writing in the Cambridge History of Science, calls Шаблон:Lang "one of the most successful and enduring herbals of antiquity, [which] emphasized the importance of understanding the natural world in light of its medicinal efficiency", in contrast to Pliny's Natural History (which emphasized the wonders of nature) or the natural history studies of Aristotle and Theophrastus (which emphasized the causes of natural phenomena).[12] Medicine historian Vivian Nutton, in Ancient Medicine, writes that Dioscorides's "five books in Greek On Materia medica attained canonical status in Late Antiquity."Шаблон:Sfn Science historian Brian Ogilvie calls Dioscorides "the greatest ancient herbalist", and Шаблон:Lang "the summa of ancient descriptive botany", observing that its success was such that few other books in his domain have survived from classical times.[13] Further, his approach matched the Renaissance liking for detailed description, unlike the philosophical search for essential nature (as in Theophrastus's Шаблон:Lang). A critical moment was the decision by Niccolò Leoniceno and others to use Dioscorides "as the model of the careful naturalist—and his book Шаблон:Lang as the model for natural history."[14]

Файл:Dioscorides De Materia Medica Byzantium 15th century.jpg
Byzantine Шаблон:Lang, 15th century

The Dioscorides translator and editor Tess Anne Osbaldeston notes that "For almost two millennia Dioscorides was regarded as the ultimate authority on plants and medicine",Шаблон:Sfn and that he "achieved overwhelming commendation and approval because his writings addressed the many ills of mankind most usefully."Шаблон:Sfn To illustrate this, she states that "Dioscorides describes many valuable drugs including aconite, aloes, bitter apple, colchicum, henbane, and squill".Шаблон:Sfn The work mentions the painkillers willow (leading ultimately to aspirin, she writes), autumn crocus and opium, which however is also narcotic. Many other substances that Dioscorides describes remain in modern pharmacopoeias as "minor drugs, diluents, flavouring agents, and emollients ... [such as] ammoniacum, anise, cardamoms, catechu, cinnamon, colocynth, coriander, crocus, dill, fennel, galbanum, gentian, hemlock, hyoscyamus, lavender, linseed, mastic, male fern, marjoram, marshmallow, mezereon, mustard, myrrh, orris (iris), oak galls, olive oil, pennyroyal, pepper, peppermint, poppy, psyllium, rhubarb, rosemary, rue, saffron, sesame, squirting cucumber (elaterium), starch, stavesacre (delphinium), storax, stramonium, sugar, terebinth, thyme, white hellebore, white horehound, and couch grass—the last still used as a demulcent diuretic."Шаблон:Sfn She notes that medicines such as wormwood, juniper, ginger, and calamine also remain in use, while "Chinese and Indian physicians continue to use liquorice".Шаблон:Sfn She observes that the many drugs listed to reduce the spleen may be explained by the frequency of malaria in his time. Dioscorides lists drugs for women to cause abortion and to treat urinary tract infection; palliatives for toothache, such as colocynth, and others for intestinal pains; and treatments for skin and eye diseases.Шаблон:Sfn As well as these useful substances, she observes that "A few superstitious practices are recorded in Шаблон:Lang,"Шаблон:Sfn such as using Echium as an amulet to ward off snakes, or Polemonia (Jacob's ladder) for scorpion stings.Шаблон:Sfn

In the view of the historian Paula De Vos, Шаблон:Lang formed the core of the European pharmacopoeia until the end of the 19th century, suggesting that "the timelessness of Dioscorides' work resulted from an empirical tradition based on trial and error; that it worked for generation after generation despite social and cultural changes and changes in medical theory".[4]

At Mount Athos in northern Greece Dioscorides's text was still in use in its original Greek into the 20th century, as observed in 1934 by Sir Arthur Hill, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew:

Шаблон:Blockquote

Arabic medicine

Шаблон:Further Along with his fellow physicians of Ancient Rome, Aulus Cornelius Celsus, Galen, Hippocrates and Soranus of Ephesus, Dioscorides had a major and long-lasting effect on Arabic medicine as well as medical practice across Europe.[15][16] Шаблон:Lang was one of the first scientific works to be translated from Greek into Arabic (Arabic:Hayūlā ʿilāj al-ṭibb). It was translated first into Syriac and then into Arabic in 9th century Baghdad.[17][18] The translators were most often Syriac Christians, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and their work is known to have been sponsored by local rulers, such as the Artuqids.[19]

Manuscripts

1224 manuscript

One De materia medica manuscript is dated to 1224, but its provenance is uncertain. It is generally cautiously attributed to "Iraq or Northern Jazira, possibly Baghdad".[20] Its folios have been dispersed among multiple institutions and collectors.

Istanbul, Topkapı Palace, Ahmet II 2127 (1229)

This copy was created by Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Ali in 1229.[21][22]

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Editions

Note: Editions may vary by both text and numbering of chapters

Greek
Greek and Latin
Latin
English
  • The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides ... Englished by John Goodyer A. D. 1655, edited by R.T. Gunter (1933).
  • De materia medica, translated by Lily Y. Beck (2005). Hildesheim: Olms-Weidman.
  • Шаблон:Cite book (from the Latin, after John Goodyer 1655])
French
German
Spanish

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Wikisource

Шаблон:Ancient anaesthesia-footer Шаблон:Natural history Шаблон:History of biologyШаблон:Ancient Roman medicineШаблон:Islamic manuscriptsШаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Dead link
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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