Английская Википедия:Dependent and independent verb forms
In the Goidelic languages, dependent and independent verb forms are distinct verb forms; each tense of each verb exists in both forms. Verbs are often preceded by a particle which marks negation, or a question, or has some other force. The dependent verb forms are used after a particle, while independent forms are used when the verb is not subject to a particle. For example, in Irish, the past tense of the verb Шаблон:Lang ("to see") has two forms: the independent form Шаблон:Lang and the dependent form Шаблон:Lang. The independent form is used when no particle precedes the verb, as in Шаблон:Lang ("I saw John").[n 1] The dependent form is used when a particle such as Шаблон:Lang ("not") precedes the verb, as in Шаблон:Lang ("I did not see John").[n 2]
Old Irish
The distinction between dependent and independent forms originates with two distinct but related phenomena in Old Irish: the contrast between absolute and conjunct verb endings, and the contrast between prototonic and deuterotonic forms.[1]Шаблон:Rp
Old Irish verbs that have no prefixes, called "simple verbs", have two sets of endings, absolute and conjunct. The conjunct endings are used after a variety of grammatical particles, including among others the negative particle Шаблон:Lang ("not"), the interrogative particle Шаблон:Lang, and prepositions combined with the relative pronoun (e.g. Шаблон:Lang "with which"). Where no such "conjunct particle" is present, the absolute endings are used. For example, "he calls" is Шаблон:Lang (absolute), while examples of conjunct forms are Шаблон:Lang "he does not call" and Шаблон:Lang "with which he calls". (An interpunct "·", hyphen "-", or colon ":" is usually used to indicate conjunct forms in pedagogical and analytical works on Old Irish. Actual manuscripts do not use such punctuation marks.) When a particle is present, stress falls on the first syllable of the verb itself, i.e. the syllable after the "·" mark.[2]Шаблон:Rp[3]Шаблон:Rp
In most verbs, distinct absolute and conjunct endings are found in the present indicative, present subjunctive, future, and preterite, and most persons. For example, a partial paradigm of Шаблон:Lang ("take") is as follows:[4]Шаблон:Rp
| Person | Present indicative | |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute | Conjunct | |
| 1 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | |
| 2 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | |
| 3 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Person | Present subjunctive | |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute | Conjunct | |
| 1 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | |
| 3 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Person | Future | |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute | Conjunct | |
| 1 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | |
| 3 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| Person | Preterite | |
|---|---|---|
| Absolute | Conjunct | |
| 1 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 sg. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 1 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
| 2 pl. | (unattested) | Шаблон:Lang |
| 3 pl. | Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang |
Verbs that have one or more prefixes, called "compound verbs", always take conjunct endings. In this case, stress generally falls on the syllable after the first prefix. Where only one prefix is present, that means stress falls on the verb root, but where two or more prefixes are present, stress then falls on the second prefix.[1]Шаблон:Rp[3]Шаблон:Rp
| No. of prefixes |
Underlying form | Surface form | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /to- + gair/[n 3] | Шаблон:Lang | "he summons" |
| 2 | /for- + com- + gair/ | Шаблон:Lang | "he commands" |
| 3 | /to- + air- + com- + gair/ | Шаблон:Lang | "he promises" |
Because these verb forms are stressed on the second syllable, they are called deuterotonic (from Greek Шаблон:Lang deuteros "second" + Шаблон:Lang tonos "tone, stress"). As can be seen in the above examples, the phonological effects of stress placement can be significant; for example, when the prefix com- follows the stressed syllable, it is reduced to just n. These phonological changes become even more apparent when a conjunct particle like Шаблон:Lang ("not") is added. In this case, stress shifts to the first prefix, which has phonological consequences for the rest of the verbal complex.[1]Шаблон:Rp
| No. of prefixes |
Underlying form | Surface form | Gloss |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | /ní + to- + gair/ | Шаблон:Lang | "he doesn't summon" |
| 2 | /ní + for- + com- + gair/ | Шаблон:Lang | "he doesn't command" |
| 3 | /ní + to- + air- + com- + gair/ | Шаблон:Lang | "he does not promise" |
Because these forms are stressed on the first syllable of the verb proper (i.e. the syllable after the particle), they are called prototonic (Greek Шаблон:Lang prōtos "first", proto- prefix). The relationship between prototonic and deuterotonic compound verb forms is thus analogous to that between simple verb forms with conjunct and absolute endings: the one group is used after a conjunct particle like Шаблон:Lang, the other group without such a particle.[1]Шаблон:Rp
| Without particle (independent) |
With particle (dependent) |
Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang (abs.) | Шаблон:Lang (conj.) | "he calls/does not call" |
| Шаблон:Lang (deut.) | Шаблон:Lang (prot.) | "he summons/does not summon" |
| Шаблон:Lang (deut.) | Шаблон:Lang (prot.) | "he promises/does not promise" |
The distinction between absolute and conjunct endings is believed to have originated with the placement of a particle *(e)s in Proto-Insular Celtic;[5] see Insular Celtic languages#Absolute and dependent verb for discussion.
In addition to the above-mentioned forms, Old Irish also has one dependent verb form that is neither a regular conjunct form nor a prototonic form: the word Шаблон:Lang functions in many cases as the dependent equivalent of Шаблон:Lang "is", e.g. Шаблон:Lang "there is no part", where Шаблон:Lang follows the conjunct particle Шаблон:Lang "not".[2]Шаблон:Rp This form survives in Modern Irish as Шаблон:Lang, in Gaelic as Шаблон:Lang, and in Manx as Шаблон:Lang/Шаблон:Lang, all of which are used as the dependent equivalent of the verb for "is".
Scottish Gaelic
Scottish Gaelic retains traces of both the absolute/conjunct distinction and the deuterotonic/prototonic distinction. The absolute/conjunct distinction is retained in the habitual present tense (also used as, and often referred to as, the future tense) of regular and many irregular verbs. In these cases, the independent form of the verb ends in -(a)idh (cf. Old Irish Шаблон:Lang above), while the dependent form drops this ending (cf. Old Irish Шаблон:Lang above).[6]Шаблон:Rp[7]Шаблон:Rp For example:
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will grasp |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will drink |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will hear |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will reach |
In other irregular verbs, the independent/dependent distinction (found in both the habitual present and in the past) is inherited from the Old Irish deuterotonic/prototonic distinction.[6]Шаблон:Rp For example:
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will see |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | saw |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will get |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | went |
Manx
The situation in Manx is very similar to that in Scottish Gaelic. The future tense has the ending -ee in the independent form, which in many verbs is dropped in the dependent form. In addition, dependent forms undergo various initial mutations in Manx. For example:[8]Шаблон:Rp
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will throw |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang |
will leave |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will eat |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will hear |
In Manx too, remnants of the deuterotonic/prototonic distinction of Old Irish are found in the independent/dependent distinction in some irregular verbs, for example:[9]Шаблон:Rp
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | was |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | will do |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang |
saw |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | went |
Irish
In Early Modern Irish, the absolute/conjunct distinction was on the wane. It was less thoroughgoing than in Old Irish, but more than in the modern languages. In the conjunct of the present tense, endingless forms like Old Irish Шаблон:Lang (cf. Gaelic Шаблон:Lang and Manx Шаблон:Lang above[n 4]) were gradually being replaced by forms with the ending -(e)ann. The distinction was found not only in the 3rd person singular, but also in the 1st and 3rd persons plural. Thus in Early Modern Irish, distinctions like the following were made:[10]Шаблон:Rp
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang / Шаблон:Lang |
praises |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | we praise |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | they praise |
The distinction was also found in the 1st and 3rd persons of the future tense:[10]Шаблон:Rp
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | I will praise |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | s/he will praise |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | we will praise |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | they will praise |
In Modern Irish, all of these distinctions have been lost. Sometimes it is the independent form that was generalized (e.g. Шаблон:Lang "will praise"), sometimes the dependent form (e.g. Шаблон:Lang "praises").
However, the deuterotonic/prototonic distinction is still found in many irregular verbs, for example:[11]Шаблон:Rp
| Independent | Dependent | Gloss |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | was |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | made |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | would find |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | saw |
| Шаблон:Lang | Шаблон:Lang | went |
Irish has two types of relative clause: direct and indirect (see Irish syntax#Relative clauses for details). The distinction between them is shown firstly by the fact that the relative particle Шаблон:Lang triggers lenition of the following verb in direct relatives but eclipsis of the verb in indirect relatives, and secondly (where the distinction is made) it takes the independent form of the verb in direct relatives and the dependent form in indirect relatives.[11]Шаблон:Rp For example:
- Шаблон:Lang "the work which I was doing" (direct relative; independent form)
- Шаблон:Lang "the man whose son was in the hospital (indirect relative; dependent form)
Irish also has two types of conditional clause, which are introduced by two different words for "if": Шаблон:Lang introduces realis clauses, and Шаблон:Lang introduces irrealis clauses. Realis clauses indicate conditionals with a possible fulfillment (e.g. "if he is agreeable", which leaves open the possibility that he is), while irrealis clauses indicate purely hypothetical conditionals (e.g. "if it were a nice day", but it isn't).[12]Шаблон:Rp The realis particle Шаблон:Lang triggers lenition of the following verb and takes the independent form, while the irrealis particle Шаблон:Lang triggers eclipsis and takes the dependent form. For example:
- Шаблон:Lang "if she saw it" (realis; independent form)
- Шаблон:Lang "if she had found it" (irrealis; dependent form)
Footnotes
- ↑ As the Goidelic languages use verb–subject–object word orders, the verb Шаблон:Lang ("saw") precedes the subject Шаблон:Lang ("I").
- ↑ The particle Шаблон:Lang triggers lenition of the verb, changing Шаблон:Lang (pronounced Шаблон:IPA) to Шаблон:Lang (pronounced Шаблон:IPA).
- ↑ The prefix to- becomes do- when unstressed.
- ↑ The future tense of Gaelic and Manx is derived from the Old Irish present.
References
Шаблон:Irish linguistics Шаблон:Scottish Gaelic linguistics
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокMcCone 1987не указан текст - ↑ 2,0 2,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокThurneysen 1946не указан текст - ↑ 3,0 3,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокMcCone 2005не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокGreen 1995не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокCowgill 1975не указан текст - ↑ 6,0 6,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокCalder 1923не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокMackinnon 1971не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокBroderick 1993не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокBroderick 1984-86не указан текст - ↑ 10,0 10,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокMcManus 1994не указан текст - ↑ 11,0 11,1 Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокChristian Brothers 1994не указан текст - ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокO Siadhail 1989не указан текст
