Английская Википедия:Desmond Tutu
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Use South African English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox Christian leader Desmond Tutu (7 October 1931Шаблон:Spnd26 December 2021) was a South African Anglican bishop and theologian, known for his work as an anti-apartheid and human rights activist. He was Bishop of Johannesburg from 1985 to 1986 and then Archbishop of Cape Town from 1986 to 1996, in both cases being the first black African to hold the position. Theologically, he sought to fuse ideas from black theology with African theology.
Tutu was born of mixed Xhosa and Motswana heritage to a poor family in Klerksdorp, South Africa. Entering adulthood, he trained as a teacher and married Nomalizo Leah Tutu, with whom he had several children. In 1960, he was ordained as an Anglican priest and in 1962 moved to the United Kingdom to study theology at King's College London. In 1966 he returned to southern Africa, teaching at the Federal Theological Seminary and then the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland. In 1972, he became the Theological Education Fund's director for Africa, a position based in London but necessitating regular tours of the African continent. Back in southern Africa in 1975, he served first as dean of St Mary's Cathedral in Johannesburg and then as Bishop of Lesotho; from 1978 to 1985 he was general-secretary of the South African Council of Churches. He emerged as one of the most prominent opponents of South Africa's apartheid system of racial segregation and white minority rule. Although warning the National Party government that anger at apartheid would lead to racial violence, as an activist he stressed non-violent protest and foreign economic pressure to bring about universal suffrage.
In 1985, Tutu became Bishop of Johannesburg and in 1986 the Archbishop of Cape Town, the most senior position in southern Africa's Anglican hierarchy. In this position, he emphasised a consensus-building model of leadership and oversaw the introduction of female priests. Also in 1986, he became president of the All Africa Conference of Churches, resulting in further tours of the continent. After President F. W. de Klerk released the anti-apartheid activist Nelson Mandela from prison in 1990 and the pair led negotiations to end apartheid and introduce multi-racial democracy, Tutu assisted as a mediator between rival black factions. After the 1994 general election resulted in a coalition government headed by Mandela, the latter selected Tutu to chair the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses committed by both pro and anti-apartheid groups. Following apartheid's fall, Tutu campaigned for gay rights and spoke out on a wide range of subjects, among them his criticism of South African presidents Thabo Mbeki and Jacob Zuma, his opposition to the Iraq War, and describing Israel's treatment of Palestinians as apartheid. In 2010, he retired from public life, but continued to speak out on numerous topics and events.
As Tutu rose to prominence in the 1970s, different socio-economic groups and political classes held a wide range of views about him, from critical to admiring. He was popular among South Africa's black majority and was internationally praised for his work involving anti-apartheid activism, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize and other international awards. He also compiled several books of his speeches and sermons.
Early life
Childhood: 1931–1950
Desmond Mpilo Tutu was born on 7 October 1931 in Klerksdorp, Transvaal, South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm His mother, Allen Dorothea Mavoertsek Mathlare, was born to a Motswana family in Boksburg.Шаблон:Sfnm His father, Zachariah Zelilo Tutu, was from the amaFengu branch of Xhosa and grew up in Gcuwa, Eastern Cape.Шаблон:Sfnm At home, the couple spoke the Xhosa language.Шаблон:Sfn Having married in Boksburg,Шаблон:Sfn they moved to Klerksdorp in the late 1950s, living in the city's "native location", or black residential area, since renamed Makoeteng.Шаблон:Sfn Zachariah worked as the principal of a Methodist primary school and the family lived in the mud-brick schoolmaster's house in the yard of the Methodist mission.Шаблон:Sfnm
The Tutus were poor;Шаблон:Sfnm describing his family, Tutu later related that "although we weren't affluent, we were not destitute either".Шаблон:Sfn He had an older sister, Sylvia Funeka, who called him "Mpilo" (meaning 'life').Шаблон:Sfnm He was his parents' second son; their firstborn boy, Sipho, had died in infancy.Шаблон:Sfn Another daughter, Gloria Lindiwe, was born after him.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was sickly from birth;Шаблон:Sfnm polio atrophied his right hand,Шаблон:Sfnm and on one occasion he was hospitalised with serious burns.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu had a close relationship with his father, although was angered at the latter's heavy drinking and violence toward his wife.Шаблон:Sfnm The family were initially Methodists and Tutu was baptised into the Methodist Church in June 1932.Шаблон:Sfnm They subsequently changed denominations, first to the African Methodist Episcopal Church and then to the Anglican Church.Шаблон:Sfnm
In 1936, the family moved to Tshing, where Zachariah became principal of a Methodist school.Шаблон:Sfn There, Tutu started his primary education,Шаблон:Sfn learned Afrikaans,Шаблон:Sfnm and became the server at St Francis Anglican Church.Шаблон:Sfn He developed a love of reading, particularly enjoying comic books and European fairy tales.Шаблон:Sfnm In Tshing his parents had a third son, Tamsanqa, who also died in infancy.Шаблон:Sfn Around 1941, Tutu's mother moved to the Witwatersrand to work as a cook at Ezenzeleni Blind Institute in Johannesburg. Tutu joined her in the city, living in Roodepoort West.Шаблон:Sfnm In Johannesburg, he attended a Methodist primary school before transferring to the Swedish Boarding School (SBS) in the St Agnes Mission.Шаблон:Sfn Several months later, he moved with his father to Ermelo, eastern Transvaal.Шаблон:Sfn After six months, the duo returned to Roodepoort West, where Tutu resumed his studies at SBS.Шаблон:Sfn Aged 12, he underwent confirmation at St Mary's Church, Roodepoort.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu entered the Johannesburg Bantu High School (Madibane High School) in 1945, where he excelled academically.Шаблон:Sfn Joining a school rugby team, he developed a lifelong love of the sport.Шаблон:Sfn Outside of school, he earned money selling oranges and as a caddie for white golfers.Шаблон:Sfnm To avoid the expense of a daily train commute to school, he briefly lived with family nearer to Johannesburg, before moving back in with his parents when they relocated to Munsieville.Шаблон:Sfn He then returned to Johannesburg, moving into an Anglican hostel near the Church of Christ the King in Sophiatown.Шаблон:Sfnm He became a server at the church and came under the influence of its priest, Trevor Huddleston;Шаблон:Sfnm later biographer Shirley du Boulay suggested that Huddleston was "the greatest single influence" in Tutu's life.Шаблон:Sfn In 1947, Tutu contracted tuberculosis and was hospitalised in Rietfontein for 18 months, during which he was regularly visited by Huddleston.Шаблон:Sfnm In the hospital, he underwent circumcision to mark his transition to manhood.Шаблон:Sfn He returned to school in 1949 and took his national exams in late 1950, gaining a second-class pass.Шаблон:Sfn
College and teaching career: 1951–1955
Although Tutu secured admission to study medicine at the University of the Witwatersrand, his parents could not afford the tuition fees.Шаблон:Sfn Instead, he turned toward teaching, gaining a government scholarship for a course at Pretoria Bantu Normal College, a teacher training institution, in 1951.Шаблон:Sfnm There, he served as treasurer of the Student Representative Council, helped to organise the Literacy and Dramatic Society, and chaired the Cultural and Debating Society.Шаблон:Sfn During one debating event he met the lawyer—and future president of South Africa—Nelson Mandela; they would not encounter each other again until 1990.Шаблон:Sfnm At the college, Tutu attained his Transvaal Bantu Teachers Diploma, having gained advice about taking exams from the activist Robert Sobukwe.Шаблон:Sfnm He had also taken five correspondence courses provided by the University of South Africa (UNISA), graduating in the same class as future Zimbabwean leader Robert Mugabe.Шаблон:Sfnm
In 1954, Tutu began teaching English at Madibane High School; the following year, he transferred to the Krugersdorp High School, where he taught English and history.Шаблон:Sfnm He began courting Nomalizo Leah Shenxane, a friend of his sister Gloria who was studying to become a primary school teacher.Шаблон:Sfnm They were legally married at Krugersdorp Native Commissioner's Court in June 1955, before undergoing a Roman Catholic wedding ceremony at the Church of Mary Queen of Apostles; although an Anglican, Tutu agreed to the ceremony due to Leah's Roman Catholic faith.Шаблон:Sfnm The newlyweds lived at Tutu's parental home before renting their own six months later.Шаблон:Sfn Their first child, Trevor, was born in April 1956;Шаблон:Sfnm a daughter, Thandeka, appeared 16 months later.Шаблон:Sfn The couple worshipped at St Paul's Church, where Tutu volunteered as a Sunday school teacher, assistant choirmaster, church councillor, lay preacher, and sub-deacon;Шаблон:Sfn he also volunteered as a football administrator for a local team.Шаблон:Sfn
Joining the clergy: 1956–1966
In 1953, the white-minority National Party government introduced the Bantu Education Act to further their apartheid system of racial segregation and white domination. Disliking the Act, Tutu and his wife left the teaching profession.Шаблон:Sfnm With Huddleston's support, Tutu chose to become an Anglican priest.Шаблон:Sfnm In January 1956, his request to join the Ordinands Guild was turned down due to his debts; these were then paid off by the wealthy industrialist Harry Oppenheimer.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was admitted to St Peter's Theological College in Rosettenville, Johannesburg, which was run by the Anglican Community of the Resurrection.Шаблон:Sfnm The college was residential, and Tutu lived there while his wife trained as a nurse in Sekhukhuneland; their children lived with Tutu's parents in Munsieville.Шаблон:Sfnm In August 1960, his wife gave birth to another daughter, Naomi.Шаблон:Sfn
At the college, Tutu studied the Bible, Anglican doctrine, church history, and Christian ethics,Шаблон:Sfnm earning a Licentiate of Theology degree,Шаблон:Sfn and winning the archbishop's annual essay prize.Шаблон:Sfnm The college's principal, Godfrey Pawson, wrote that Tutu "has exceptional knowledge and intelligence and is very industrious. At the same time, he shows no arrogance, mixes in well, and is popular ... He has obvious gifts of leadership."Шаблон:Sfn During his years at the college, there had been an intensification in anti-apartheid activism as well as a crackdown against it, including the Sharpeville massacre of 1960.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu and the other trainees did not engage in anti-apartheid campaigns;Шаблон:Sfnm he later noted that they were "in some ways a very apolitical bunch".Шаблон:Sfn
In December 1960, Edward Paget ordained Tutu as an Anglican priest at St Mary's Cathedral.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu was then appointed assistant curate in St Alban's Parish, Benoni, where he was reunited with his wife and children,Шаблон:Sfnm and earned two-thirds of what his white counterparts were given.Шаблон:Sfn In 1962, Tutu was transferred to St Philip's Church in Thokoza, where he was placed in charge of the congregation and developed a passion for pastoral ministry.Шаблон:Sfnm Many in South Africa's white-dominated Anglican establishment felt the need for more black Africans in positions of ecclesiastical authority; to assist in this, Aelfred Stubbs proposed that Tutu train as a theology teacher at King's College London (KCL).Шаблон:Sfnm Funding was secured from the International Missionary Council's Theological Education Fund (TEF),Шаблон:Sfn and the government agreed to give the Tutus permission to move to Britain.Шаблон:Sfnm They duly did so in September 1962.Шаблон:Sfn
At KCL, Tutu studied under theologians like Dennis Nineham, Christopher Evans, Sydney Evans, Geoffrey Parrinder, and Eric Mascall.Шаблон:Sfn In London, the Tutus felt liberated experiencing a life free from South Africa's apartheid and pass laws;Шаблон:Sfnm he later noted that "there is racism in England, but we were not exposed to it".Шаблон:Sfn He was also impressed by the freedom of speech in the country, especially at Speakers' Corner in London's Hyde Park.Шаблон:Sfn The family moved into the curate's flat behind the Church of St Alban the Martyr in Golders Green, where Tutu assisted Sunday services, the first time that he had ministered to a white congregation.Шаблон:Sfnm It was in the flat that a daughter, Mpho Andrea Tutu, was born in 1963.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu was academically successful and his tutors suggested that he convert to an honours degree, which entailed his also studying Hebrew.Шаблон:Sfn He received his degree from Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in a ceremony held at the Royal Albert Hall.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu then secured a TEF grant to study for a master's degree,Шаблон:Sfnm doing so from October 1965 until September 1966, completing his dissertation on Islam in West Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm During this period, the family moved to Bletchingley in Surrey, where Tutu worked as the assistant curate of St Mary's Church.Шаблон:Sfnm In the village, he encouraged cooperation between his Anglican parishioners and the local Roman Catholic and Methodist communities.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu's time in London helped him to jettison any bitterness to whites and feelings of racial inferiority; he overcame his habit of automatically deferring to whites.Шаблон:Sfn
Career during apartheid
Teaching in South Africa and Lesotho: 1966–1972
In 1966, Tutu and his family moved to East Jerusalem, where he studied Arabic and Greek for two months at St George's College.Шаблон:Sfnm They then returned to South Africa,Шаблон:Sfn settling in Alice, Eastern Cape, in 1967. The Federal Theological Seminary (Fedsem) had recently been established there as an amalgamation of training institutions from different Christian denominations.Шаблон:Sfnm At Fedsem, Tutu was employed teaching doctrine, the Old Testament, and Greek;Шаблон:Sfnm Leah became its library assistant.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was the college's first black staff-member,Шаблон:Sfn and the campus allowed a level of racial-mixing which was rare in South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm The Tutus sent their children to a private boarding school in Swaziland, thereby keeping them from South Africa's Bantu Education syllabus.Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu joined a pan-Protestant group, the Church Unity Commission,Шаблон:Sfn served as a delegate at Anglican-Catholic conversations,Шаблон:Sfn and began publishing in academic journals.Шаблон:Sfn He also became the Anglican chaplain to the neighbouring University of Fort Hare;Шаблон:Sfnm in an unusual move for the time, Tutu invited female as well as male students to become servers during the Eucharist.Шаблон:Sfn He joined student delegations to meetings of the Anglican Students' Federation and the University Christian Movement,Шаблон:Sfn and was broadly supportive of the Black Consciousness Movement that emerged from South Africa's 1960s student milieu, although did not share its view on avoiding collaboration with whites.Шаблон:Sfnm In August 1968, he gave a sermon comparing South Africa's situation with that in the Eastern Bloc, likening anti-apartheid protests to the recent Prague Spring.Шаблон:Sfnm In September, Fort Hare students held a sit-in protest over the university administration's policies; after they were surrounded by police with dogs, Tutu waded into the crowd to pray with the protesters.Шаблон:Sfnm This was the first time that he had witnessed state power used to suppress dissent.Шаблон:Sfnm
In January 1970, Tutu left the seminary for a teaching post at the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland (UBLS) in Roma, Lesotho.Шаблон:Sfnm This brought him closer to his children and offered twice the salary he earned at Fedsem.Шаблон:Sfnm He and his wife moved to the UBLS campus; most of his fellow staff members were white expatriates from the US or Britain.Шаблон:Sfn As well as his teaching position, he also became the college's Anglican chaplain and the warden of two student residences.Шаблон:Sfn In Lesotho, he joined the executive board of the Lesotho Ecumenical Association and served as an external examiner for both Fedsem and Rhodes University.Шаблон:Sfn He returned to South Africa on several occasions, including to visit his father shortly before the latter's death in February 1971.Шаблон:Sfn
TEF Africa director: 1972–1975
Tutu accepted TEF's offer of a job as their director for Africa, a position based in England. South Africa's government initially refused permission, regarding him with suspicion since the Fort Hare protests, but relented after Tutu argued that his taking the role would be good publicity for South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm In March 1972, he returned to Britain. The TEF's headquarters were in Bromley, with the Tutu family settling in nearby Grove Park, where Tutu became honorary curate of St Augustine's Church.Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu's job entailed assessing grants to theological training institutions and students.Шаблон:Sfnm This required his touring Africa in the early 1970s, and he wrote accounts of his experiences.Шаблон:Sfnm In Zaire, he for instance lamented the widespread corruption and poverty and complained that Mobutu Sese Seko's "military regime... is extremely galling to a black from South Africa."Шаблон:Sfn In Nigeria, he expressed concern at Igbo resentment following the crushing of their Republic of Biafra.Шаблон:Sfn In 1972 he travelled around East Africa, where he was impressed by Jomo Kenyatta's Kenyan government and witnessed Idi Amin's expulsion of Ugandan Asians.Шаблон:Sfn
During the early 1970s, Tutu's theology changed due to his experiences in Africa and his discovery of liberation theology.Шаблон:Sfn He was also attracted to black theology,Шаблон:Sfnm attending a 1973 conference on the subject at New York City's Union Theological Seminary.Шаблон:Sfn There, he presented a paper in which he stated that "black theology is an engaged not an academic, detached theology. It is a gut level theology, relating to the real concerns, the life and death issues of the black man."Шаблон:Sfn He stated that his paper was not an attempt to demonstrate the academic respectability of black theology but rather to make "a straightforward, perhaps shrill, statement about an existent. Black theology is. No permission is being requested for it to come into being... Frankly the time has passed when we will wait for the white man to give us permission to do our thing. Whether or not he accepts the intellectual respectability of our activity is largely irrelevant. We will proceed regardless."Шаблон:Sfn Seeking to fuse the African-American derived black theology with African theology, Tutu's approach contrasted with that of those African theologians, like John Mbiti, who regarded black theology as a foreign import irrelevant to Africa.Шаблон:Sfn
Dean of St Mary's Cathedral, Johannesburg and Bishop of Lesotho: 1975–1978
In 1975, Tutu was nominated to be the new Bishop of Johannesburg, although he lost out to Timothy Bavin.Шаблон:Sfnm Bavin suggested that Tutu take his newly vacated position, that of the dean of St Mary's Cathedral, Johannesburg. Tutu was elected to this position—the fourth highest in South Africa's Anglican hierarchy—in March 1975, becoming the first black man to do so, an appointment making headline news in South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu was officially installed as dean in August 1975. The cathedral was packed for the event.Шаблон:Sfn Moving to the city, Tutu lived not in the official dean's residence in the white suburb of Houghton but rather in a house on a middle-class street in the Orlando West township of Soweto, a largely impoverished black area.Шаблон:Sfnm Although majority white, the cathedral's congregation was racially mixed, something that gave Tutu hope that a racially equal, de-segregated future was possible for South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm He encountered some resistance to his attempts to modernise the liturgies used by the congregation,Шаблон:Sfnm including his attempts to replace masculine pronouns with gender neutral ones.Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu used his position to speak out on social issues,Шаблон:Sfn publicly endorsing an international economic boycott of South Africa over apartheid.Шаблон:Sfn He met with Black Consciousness and Soweto leaders,Шаблон:Sfnm and shared a platform with anti-apartheid campaigner Winnie Mandela in opposing the government's Terrorism Act, 1967.Шаблон:Sfn He held a 24-hour vigil for racial harmony at the cathedral where he prayed for activists detained under the act.Шаблон:Sfn In May 1976, he wrote to Prime Minister B. J. Vorster, warning that if the government maintained apartheid then the country would erupt in racial violence.Шаблон:Sfnm Six weeks later, the Soweto uprising broke out as black youth clashed with police. Over the course of ten months, at least 660 were killed, most under the age of 24.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu was upset by what he regarded as the lack of outrage from white South Africans; he raised the issue in his Sunday sermon, stating that the white silence was "deafening" and asking if they would have shown the same nonchalance had white youths been killed.Шаблон:Sfnm
After seven months as dean, Tutu was nominated to become the Bishop of Lesotho.Шаблон:Sfnm Although Tutu did not want the position, he was elected to it in March 1976 and reluctantly accepted.Шаблон:Sfnm This decision upset some of his congregation, who felt that he had used their parish as a stepping stone to advance his career.Шаблон:Sfn In July, Bill Burnett consecrated Tutu as a bishop at St Mary's Cathedral.Шаблон:Sfnm In August, Tutu was enthroned as the Bishop of Lesotho in a ceremony at Maseru's Cathedral of St Mary and St James; thousands attended, including King Moshoeshoe II and Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan.Шаблон:Sfnm Travelling through the largely rural diocese,Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu learned Sesotho.Шаблон:Sfn He appointed Philip Mokuku as the first dean of the diocese and placed great emphasis on further education for the Basotho clergy.Шаблон:Sfn He befriended the royal family although his relationship with Jonathan's government was strained.Шаблон:Sfnm In September 1977 he returned to South Africa to speak at the Eastern Cape funeral of Black Consciousness activist Steve Biko, who had been killed by police.Шаблон:Sfnm At the funeral, Tutu stated that Black Consciousness was "a movement by which God, through Steve, sought to awaken in the black person a sense of his intrinsic value and worth as a child of God".Шаблон:Sfn
General-Secretary of the South African Council of Churches: 1978–1985
SACC leadership
Шаблон:Quote box After John Rees stepped down as general secretary of the South African Council of Churches, Tutu was among the nominees for his successor. John Thorne was ultimately elected to the position, although stepped down after three months, with Tutu's agreeing to take over at the urging of the synod of bishops.Шаблон:Sfnm His decision angered many Anglicans in Lesotho, who felt that Tutu was abandoning them.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu took charge of the SACC in March 1978.Шаблон:Sfnm Back in Johannesburg—where the SACC's headquarters were based at Khotso HouseШаблон:Sfnm—the Tutus returned to their former Orlando West home, now bought for them by an anonymous foreign donor.Шаблон:Sfn Leah gained employment as the assistant director of the Institute of Race Relations.Шаблон:Sfn
The SACC was one of the few Christian institutions in South Africa where black people had the majority representation;Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was its first black leader.Шаблон:Sfn There, he introduced a schedule of daily staff prayers, regular Bible study, monthly Eucharist, and silent retreats.Шаблон:Sfn Hegr also developed a new style of leadership, appointing senior staff who were capable of taking the initiative, delegating much of the SACC's detailed work to them, and keeping in touch with them through meetings and memorandums.Шаблон:Sfn Many of his staff referred to him as "Baba" (father).Шаблон:Sfn He was determined that the SACC become one of South Africa's most visible human rights advocacy organisations.Шаблон:Sfn His efforts gained him international recognition; the closing years of the 1970s saw him elected a fellow of KCL and receive honorary doctorates from the University of Kent, General Theological Seminary, and Harvard University.Шаблон:Sfnm
As head of the SACC, Tutu's time was dominated by fundraising for the organisation's projects.Шаблон:Sfnm Under Tutu's tenure, it was revealed that one of the SACC's divisional directors had been stealing funds. In 1981 a government commission launched to investigate the issue, headed by the judge C. F. Eloff.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu gave evidence to the commission, during which he condemned apartheid as "evil" and "unchristian".Шаблон:Sfnm When the Eloff report was published, Tutu criticised it, focusing particularly on the absence of any theologians on its board, likening it to "a group of blind men" judging the Chelsea Flower Show.Шаблон:Sfnm In 1981 Tutu also became the rector of St Augustine's Church in Soweto's Orlando West.Шаблон:Sfnm The following year he published a collection of his sermons and speeches, Crying in the Wilderness: The Struggle for Justice in South Africa;Шаблон:Sfn another volume, Hope and Suffering, appeared in 1984.Шаблон:Sfn
Activism and the Nobel Peace Prize
Tutu testified on behalf of a captured cell of Umkhonto we Sizwe, an armed anti-apartheid group linked to the banned African National Congress (ANC). He stated that although he was committed to non-violence and censured all who used violence, he could understand why black Africans became violent when their non-violent tactics had failed to overturn apartheid.Шаблон:Sfn In an earlier address, he had opined that an armed struggle against South Africa's government had little chance of succeeding but also accused Western nations of hypocrisy for condemning armed liberation groups in southern Africa while they had praised similar organisations in Europe during the Second World War.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu also signed a petition calling for the release of ANC activist Nelson Mandela,Шаблон:Sfn leading to a correspondence between the pair.Шаблон:Sfn
After Tutu told journalists that he supported an international economic boycott of South Africa, he was reprimanded before government ministers in October 1979.Шаблон:Sfnm In March 1980, the government confiscated his passport; this raised his international profile.Шаблон:Sfnm In 1980, the SACC committed itself to supporting civil disobedience against apartheid.Шаблон:Sfnm After Thorne was arrested in May, Tutu and Joe Wing led a protest march during which they were arrested, imprisoned overnight, and fined.Шаблон:Sfnm In the aftermath, a meeting was organised between 20 church leaders including Tutu, Prime Minister P. W. Botha, and seven government ministers. At this August meeting the clerical leaders unsuccessfully urged the government to end apartheid.Шаблон:Sfnm Although some clergy saw this dialogue as pointless, Tutu disagreed, commenting: "Moses went to Pharaoh repeatedly to secure the release of the Israelites."Шаблон:Sfn
In January 1981, the government returned Tutu's passport.Шаблон:Sfnm In March, he embarked on a five-week tour of Europe and North America, meeting politicians including the UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim, and addressing the UN Special Committee Against Apartheid.Шаблон:Sfnm In England, he met Robert Runcie and gave a sermon in Westminster Abbey, while in Rome he met Pope John Paul II.Шаблон:Sfnm On his return to South Africa, Botha again ordered Tutu's passport confiscated, preventing him from personally collecting several further honorary degrees.Шаблон:Sfnm It was returned 17 months later.Шаблон:Sfn In September 1982 Tutu addressed the Triennial Convention of the Episcopal Church in New Orleans before traveling to Kentucky to see his daughter Naomi, who lived there with her American husband.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu gained a popular following in the US, where he was often compared to civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr., although white conservatives like Pat Buchanan and Jerry Falwell lambasted him as an alleged communist sympathiser.Шаблон:Sfnm
Шаблон:Quote box By the 1980s, Tutu was an icon for many black South Africans, a status rivalled only by Mandela.Шаблон:Sfn In August 1983, he became a patron of the new anti-apartheid United Democratic Front (UDF).Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu angered much of South Africa's press and white minority,Шаблон:Sfn especially apartheid supporters.Шаблон:Sfn Pro-government media like The Citizen and the South African Broadcasting Corporation criticised him,Шаблон:Sfn often focusing on how his middle-class lifestyle contrasted with the poverty of the blacks he claimed to represent.Шаблон:Sfn He received hate mail and death threats from white far-right groups like the Wit Wolwe.Шаблон:Sfnm Although he remained close with prominent white liberals like Helen Suzman,Шаблон:Sfn his angry anti-government rhetoric also alienated many white liberals like Alan Paton and Bill Burnett, who believed that apartheid could be gradually reformed away.Шаблон:Sfn
In 1984, Tutu embarked on a three-month sabbatical at the General Theological Seminary of the Episcopal Church in New York.Шаблон:Sfnm In the city, he was invited to address the United Nations Security Council,Шаблон:Sfn later meeting the Congressional Black Caucus and the subcommittees on Africa in the House of Representatives and the Senate.Шаблон:Sfn He was also invited to the White House, where he unsuccessfully urged President Ronald Reagan to change his approach to South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm He was troubled that Reagan had a warmer relationship with South Africa's government than his predecessor Jimmy Carter, describing Reagan's government as "an unmitigated disaster for us blacks".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu later called Reagan "a racist pure and simple".Шаблон:Sfn
In New York City, Tutu was informed that he had won the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize; he had previously been nominated in 1981, 1982, and 1983.Шаблон:Sfnm The Nobel Prize selection committee had wanted to recognise a South African and thought Tutu would be a less controversial choice than Mandela or Mangosuthu Buthelezi.Шаблон:Sfn In December, he attended the award ceremony in Oslo—which was hampered by a bomb scare—before returning home via Sweden, Denmark, Canada, Tanzania, and Zambia.Шаблон:Sfnm He shared the US$192,000 prize money with his family, SACC staff, and a scholarship fund for South Africans in exile.Шаблон:Sfn He was the second South African to receive the award, after Albert Luthuli in 1960.Шаблон:Sfn South Africa's government and mainstream media either downplayed or criticised the award,Шаблон:Sfnm while the Organisation of African Unity hailed it as evidence of apartheid's impending demise.Шаблон:Sfn
Bishop of Johannesburg: 1985–1986
After Timothy Bavin retired as Bishop of Johannesburg, Tutu was among five replacement candidates. An elective assembly met at St Barnabas' College in October 1984 and although Tutu was one of the two most popular candidates, the white laity voting bloc consistently voted against his candidature. To break deadlock, a bishops' synod met and decided to appoint Tutu.Шаблон:Sfnm Black Anglicans celebrated, although many white Anglicans were angry;Шаблон:Sfnm some withdrew their diocesan quota in protest.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was enthroned as the sixth Bishop of Johannesburg in St Mary's Cathedral in February 1985.Шаблон:Sfnm The first black man to hold the role,Шаблон:Sfnm he took over the country's largest diocese, comprising 102 parishes and 300,000 parishioners, approximately 80% of whom were black.Шаблон:Sfn In his inaugural sermon, Tutu called on the international community to introduce economic sanctions against South Africa unless apartheid was not being dismantled within 18 to 24 months.Шаблон:Sfnm He sought to reassure white South Africans that he was not the "horrid ogre" some feared; as bishop he spent much time wooing the support of white Anglicans in his diocese,Шаблон:Sfnm and resigned as patron of the UDF.Шаблон:Sfn
The mid-1980s saw growing clashes between black youths and the security services; Tutu was invited to speak at many of the funerals of those youths killed.Шаблон:Sfnm At a Duduza funeral, he intervened to stop the crowd from killing a black man accused of being a government informant.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu angered some black South Africans by speaking against the torture and killing of suspected collaborators.Шаблон:Sfn For these militants, Tutu's calls for non-violence were perceived as an obstacle to revolution.Шаблон:Sfn When Tutu accompanied the US politician Ted Kennedy on the latter's visit to South Africa in January 1985, he was angered that protesters from the Azanian People's Organisation (AZAPO)—who regarded Kennedy as an agent of capitalism and American imperialism—disrupted proceedings.Шаблон:Sfn
Amid the violence, the ANC called on supporters to make South Africa "ungovernable";Шаблон:Sfn foreign companies increasingly disinvested in the country and the South African rand reached a record low.Шаблон:Sfn In July 1985, Botha declared a state of emergency in 36 magisterial districts, suspending civil liberties and giving the security services additional powers;Шаблон:Sfnm he rebuffed Tutu's offer to serve as a go-between for the government and leading black organisations.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu continued protesting; in April 1985, he led a small march of clergy through Johannesburg to protest the arrest of Geoff Moselane.Шаблон:Sfn In October 1985, he backed the National Initiative for Reconciliation's proposal for people to refrain from work for a day of prayer, fasting, and mourning.Шаблон:Sfn He also proposed a national strike against apartheid, angering trade unions whom he had not consulted beforehand.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu continued promoting his cause abroad. In May 1985 he embarked on a speaking tour of the United States,Шаблон:Sfn and in October 1985 addressed the political committee of the United Nations General Assembly, urging the international community to impose sanctions on South Africa if apartheid was not dismantled within six months.Шаблон:Sfn Proceeding to the United Kingdom, he met with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher.Шаблон:Sfnm He also formed a Bishop Tutu Scholarship Fund to financially assist South African students living in exile.Шаблон:Sfn He returned to the US in May 1986,Шаблон:Sfn and in August 1986 visited Japan, China, and Jamaica to promote sanctions.Шаблон:Sfn Given that most senior anti-apartheid activists were imprisoned, Mandela referred to Tutu as "public enemy number one for the powers that be".Шаблон:Sfn
Archbishop of Cape Town: 1986–1994
After Philip Russell announced his retirement as the Archbishop of Cape Town,Шаблон:Sfn in February 1986 the Black Solidarity Group formed a plan to get Tutu appointed as his replacement.Шаблон:Sfn At the time of the meeting, Tutu was in Atlanta, Georgia, receiving the Martin Luther King, Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu secured a two-thirds majority from both the clergy and laity and was then ratified in a unanimous vote by the synod of bishops.Шаблон:Sfnm He was the first black man to hold the post.Шаблон:Sfn Some white Anglicans left the church in protest.Шаблон:Sfnm Over 1,300 people attended his enthronement ceremony at the Cathedral of St George the Martyr on 7 September 1986.Шаблон:Sfnm After the ceremony, Tutu held an open-air Eucharist for 10,000 people at the Cape Showgrounds in Goodwood, where he invited Albertina Sisulu and Allan Boesak to give political speeches.Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu moved into the archbishop's Bishopscourt residence; this was illegal as he did not have official permission to reside in what the state allocated as a "white area".Шаблон:Sfnm He obtained money from the church to oversee renovations of the house,Шаблон:Sfn and had a children's playground installed in its grounds, opening this and the Bishopscourt swimming pool to members of his diocese.Шаблон:Sfnm He invited the English priest Francis Cull to set up the Institute of Christian Spirituality at Bishopscourt, with the latter moving into a building in the house's grounds.Шаблон:Sfn Such projects led to Tutu's ministry taking up an increasingly large portion of the Anglican church's budget, which Tutu sought to expand through requesting donations from overseas.Шаблон:Sfn Some Anglicans were critical of his spending.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu's vast workload was managed with the assistance of his executive officer Njongonkulu Ndungane and Michael Nuttall, who in 1989 was elected dean of the province.Шаблон:Sfn In church meetings, Tutu drew upon traditional African custom by adopting a consensus-building model of leadership, seeking to ensure that competing groups in the church reached a compromise and thus all votes would be unanimous rather than divided.Шаблон:Sfn He secured approval for the ordination of female priests in the Anglican church, having likened the exclusion of women from the position to apartheid.Шаблон:Sfn He appointed gay priests to senior positions and privately—although not at the time publicly—criticised the church's insistence that gay priests remain celibate.Шаблон:Sfn
Along with Boesak and Stephen Naidoo, Tutu mediated conflicts between black protesters and the security forces; they for instance worked to avoid clashes at the 1987 funeral of ANC guerrilla Ashley Kriel.Шаблон:Sfn In February 1988, the government banned 17 black or multi-racial organisations, including the UDF, and restricted the activities of trade unions. Church leaders organised a protest march, and after that too was banned they established the Committee for the Defense of Democracy. When the group's rally was banned, Tutu, Boesak, and Naidoo organised a service at St George's Cathedral to replace it.Шаблон:Sfnm
Opposed on principle to capital punishment, in March 1988 Tutu took up the cause of the Sharpeville Six who had been sentenced to death.Шаблон:Sfn He telephoned representatives of the American, British, and German governments urging them to pressure Botha on the issue,Шаблон:Sfn and personally met with Botha at the latter's Tuynhuys home to discuss the issue. The two did not get on well, and argued.Шаблон:Sfnm Botha accused Tutu of supporting the ANC's armed campaign; Tutu said that while he did not support their use of violence, he supported the ANC's objective of a non-racial, democratic South Africa.Шаблон:Sfn The death sentences were ultimately commuted.Шаблон:Sfn
In May 1988, the government launched a covert campaign against Tutu, organised in part by the Stratkom wing of the State Security Council.Шаблон:Sfn The security police printed leaflets and stickers with anti-Tutu slogans while unemployed blacks were paid to protest when he arrived at the airport.Шаблон:Sfn Traffic police briefly imprisoned Leah when she was late to renew her motor vehicle license.Шаблон:Sfn Although the security police organised assassination attempts on various anti-apartheid Christian leaders, they later claimed to have never done so for Tutu, deeming him too high-profile.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu remained actively involved in acts of civil disobedience against the government; he was encouraged by the fact that many whites also took part in these protests.Шаблон:Sfn In August 1989 he helped to organise an "Ecumenical Defiance Service" at St George's Cathedral,Шаблон:Sfn and shortly after joined protests at segregated beaches outside Cape Town.Шаблон:Sfnm To mark the sixth anniversary of the UDF's foundation he held a "service of witness" at the cathedral,Шаблон:Sfn and in September organised a church memorial for those protesters who had been killed in clashes with the security forces.Шаблон:Sfnm He organised a protest march through Cape Town for later that month, which the new President F. W. de Klerk agreed to permit; a multi-racial crowd containing an estimated 30,000 people took part.Шаблон:Sfnm That the march had been permitted inspired similar demonstrations to take place across the country.Шаблон:Sfn In October, de Klerk met with Tutu, Boesak, and Frank Chikane; Tutu was impressed that "we were listened to".Шаблон:Sfn In 1994, a further collection of Tutu's writings, The Rainbow People of God, was published, and followed the next year with his An African Prayer Book, a collection of prayers from across the continent accompanied by the Archbishop's commentary.Шаблон:Sfn
Dismantling of apartheid
In February 1990, de Klerk lifted the ban on political parties like the ANC; Tutu telephoned him to praise the move.Шаблон:Sfnm De Klerk then announced Nelson Mandela's release from prison; at the ANC's request, Mandela and his wife Winnie stayed at Bishopscourt on the former's first night of freedom.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu and Mandela met for the first time in 35 years at Cape Town City Hall, where Mandela spoke to the assembled crowds.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu invited Mandela to attend an Anglican synod of bishops in February 1990, at which the latter described Tutu as the "people's archbishop".Шаблон:Sfn There, Tutu and the bishops called for an end to foreign sanctions once the transition to universal suffrage was "irreversible", urged anti-apartheid groups to end armed struggle, and banned Anglican clergy from belonging to political parties.Шаблон:Sfn Many clergy were angry that the latter was being imposed without consultation, although Tutu defended it, stating that priests affiliating with political parties would prove divisive, particularly amid growing inter-party violence.Шаблон:Sfn
In March, violence broke out between supporters of the ANC and of Inkatha in kwaZulu; Tutu joined the SACC delegation in talks with Mandela, de Klerk, and Inkatha leader Mangosuthu Buthelezi in Ulundi.Шаблон:Sfn Church leaders urged Mandela and Buthelezi to hold a joint rally to quell the violence.Шаблон:Sfn Although Tutu's relationship with Buthelezi had always been strained, particularly due to Tutu's opposition to Buthelezi's collaboration in the government's Bantustan system, Tutu repeatedly visited Buthelezi to encourage his involvement in the democratic process.Шаблон:Sfn As the ANC-Inkatha violence spread from kwaZulu into the Transvaal, Tutu toured affected townships in Witwatersrand,Шаблон:Sfnm later meeting with victims of the Sebokeng and Boipatong massacres.Шаблон:Sfnm
Like many activists, Tutu believed a "third force" was stoking tensions between the ANC and Inkatha; it later emerged that intelligence agencies were supplying Inkatha with weapons to weaken the ANC's negotiating position.Шаблон:Sfnm Unlike some ANC figures, Tutu never accused de Klerk of personal complicity in this.Шаблон:Sfn In November 1990, Tutu organised a "summit" at Bishopscourt attended by both church and black political leaders in which he encouraged the latter to call on their supporters to avoid violence and allow free political campaigning.Шаблон:Sfnm After the South African Communist Party leader Chris Hani was assassinated, Tutu spoke at Hani's funeral outside Soweto.Шаблон:Sfnm Experiencing physical exhaustion and ill-health,Шаблон:Sfn Tutu then undertook a four-month sabbatical at Emory University's Candler School of Theology in Atlanta, Georgia.Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu was exhilarated by the prospect of South Africa transforming towards universal suffrage via a negotiated transition rather than civil war.Шаблон:Sfn He allowed his face to be used on posters encouraging people to vote.Шаблон:Sfn When the April 1994 multi-racial general election took place, Tutu was visibly exuberant, telling reporters that "we are on cloud nine".Шаблон:Sfnm He voted in Cape Town's Gugulethu township.Шаблон:Sfnm The ANC won the election and Mandela was declared president, heading a government of national unity.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu attended Mandela's inauguration ceremony; he had planned its religious component, insisting that Christian, Muslim, Jewish, and Hindu leaders all take part.Шаблон:Sfn
International affairs
Tutu also turned his attention to foreign events. In 1987, he gave the keynote speech at the All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC) in Lomé, Togo, calling on churches to champion the oppressed throughout Africa; he stated that "it pains us to have to admit that there is less freedom and personal liberty in most of Africa now then there was during the much-maligned colonial days."Шаблон:Sfn Elected president of the AACC, he worked closely with general-secretary José Belo over the next decade.Шаблон:Sfnm In 1989 they visited Zaire to encourage the country's churches to distance themselves from Seko's government.Шаблон:Sfnm In 1994, he and Belo visited war-torn Liberia; they met Charles Taylor, but Tutu did not trust his promise of a ceasefire.Шаблон:Sfn In 1995, Mandela sent Tutu to Nigeria to meet with military leader Sani Abacha to request the release of imprisoned politicians Moshood Abiola and Olusegun Obasanjo.Шаблон:Sfn In July 1995, he visited Rwanda a year after the genocide, preaching to 10,000 people in Kigali, calling for justice to be tempered with mercy towards the Hutus who had orchestrated the genocide.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu also travelled to other parts of world, for instance spending March 1989 in Panama and Nicaragua.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu spoke about the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, arguing that Israel's treatment of Palestinians was reminiscent of South African apartheid.[1]Шаблон:Sfn He also criticised Israel's arms sales to South Africa, wondering how the Jewish state could co-operate with a government containing Nazi sympathisers.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, Tutu recognised Israel's right to exist. In 1989, he visited Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat in Cairo, urging him to accept Israel's existence.Шаблон:Sfn In the same year, during a speech in New York City, Tutu observed Israel had a "right to territorial integrity and fundamental security", but criticised Israel's complicity in the Sabra and Shatila massacre and condemned Israel's support for the apartheid regime in South Africa.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu called for a Palestinian state,Шаблон:Sfn and emphasised that his criticisms were of the Israeli government rather than of Jews.Шаблон:Sfn At the invitation of Palestinian bishop Samir Kafity, he undertook a Christmas pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he gave a sermon near Bethlehem, in which he called for a two-state solution.Шаблон:Sfn On his 1989 trip, he laid a wreath at the Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial and gave a sermon on the importance of forgiving the perpetrators of the Holocaust;Шаблон:Sfn[2] the sermon drew criticism from Jewish groups around the world.Шаблон:Sfn Jewish anger was exacerbated by Tutu's attempts to evade accusations of anti-Semitism through comments such as "my dentist is a Dr. Cohen".Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu also spoke out regarding the Troubles in Northern Ireland. At the Lambeth Conference of 1988, he backed a resolution condemning the use of violence by all sides; Tutu believed that Irish republicans had not exhausted peaceful means of bringing about change and should not resort to armed struggle.Шаблон:Sfn Three years later, he gave a televised service from Dublin's Christ Church Cathedral, calling for negotiations between all factions.Шаблон:Sfn He visited Belfast in 1998 and again in 2001.Шаблон:Sfn
Later life
In October 1994, Tutu announced his intention of retiring as archbishop in 1996.Шаблон:Sfn Although retired archbishops normally return to the position of bishop, the other bishops gave him a new title: "archbishop emeritus".Шаблон:Sfn A farewell ceremony was held at St George's Cathedral in June 1996, attended by senior politicians like Mandela and de Klerk.Шаблон:Sfn There, Mandela awarded Tutu the Order for Meritorious Service, South Africa's highest honour.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was succeeded as archbishop by Njongonkulu Ndungane.Шаблон:Sfn
In January 1997, Tutu was diagnosed with prostate cancer and travelled abroad for treatment.Шаблон:Sfnm He publicly revealed his diagnosis, hoping to encourage other men to go for prostate exams.Шаблон:Sfn He faced recurrences of the disease in 1999 and 2006.Шаблон:Sfn Back in South Africa, he divided his time between homes in Soweto's Orlando West and Cape Town's Milnerton area.Шаблон:Sfn In 2000, he opened an office in Cape Town.Шаблон:Sfn In June 2000, the Cape Town-based Desmond Tutu Peace Centre was launched, which in 2003 launched an Emerging Leadership Program.Шаблон:Sfn
Conscious that his presence in South Africa might overshadow Ndungane, Tutu agreed to a two-year visiting professorship at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia.Шаблон:Sfn This took place between 1998 and 2000, and during the period he wrote a book about the TRC, No Future Without Forgiveness.Шаблон:Sfn In early 2002 he taught at the Episcopal Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.Шаблон:Sfn From January to May 2003 he taught at the University of North Carolina.Шаблон:Sfn In January 2004, he was visiting professor of postconflict societies at King's College London, his alma mater.Шаблон:Sfn While in the United States, he signed up with a speakers' agency and travelled widely on speaking engagements; this gave him financial independence in a way that his clerical pension would not.Шаблон:Sfn In his speeches, he focused on South Africa's transition from apartheid to universal suffrage, presenting it as a model for other troubled nations to adopt.Шаблон:Sfn In the United States, he thanked anti-apartheid activists for campaigning for sanctions, also calling for United States companies to now invest in South Africa.Шаблон:Sfn
Truth and Reconciliation Commission: 1996–1998
Tutu popularised the term "Rainbow Nation" as a metaphor for post-apartheid South Africa after 1994 under ANC rule.Шаблон:Sfn He had first used the metaphor in 1989 when he described a multi-racial protest crowd as the "rainbow people of God".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu advocated what liberation theologians call "critical solidarity", offering support for pro-democracy forces while reserving the right to criticise his allies.Шаблон:Sfn He criticised Mandela on several points, such as his tendency to wear brightly coloured Madiba shirts, which he regarded as inappropriate;Шаблон:Clarify Mandela offered the tongue-in-cheek response that it was ironic coming from a man who wore dresses.Шаблон:Sfn More serious was Tutu's criticism of Mandela's retention of South Africa's apartheid-era armaments industry and the significant pay packet that newly elected members of parliament adopted.Шаблон:Sfnm Mandela hit back, calling Tutu a "populist" and stating that he should have raised these issues privately rather than publicly.Шаблон:Sfnm
A key question facing the post-apartheid government was how they would respond to the various human rights abuses that had been committed over the previous decades by both the state and by anti-apartheid activists. The National Party had wanted a comprehensive amnesty package whereas the ANC wanted trials of former state figures.Шаблон:Sfn Alex Boraine helped Mandela's government to draw up legislation for the establishment of a Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which was passed by parliament in July 1995.Шаблон:Sfn Nuttall suggested that Tutu become one of the TRC's seventeen commissioners, while in September a synod of bishops formally nominated him.Шаблон:Sfnm Tutu proposed that the TRC adopt a threefold approach: the first being confession, with those responsible for human rights abuses fully disclosing their activities, the second being forgiveness in the form of a legal amnesty from prosecution, and the third being restitution, with the perpetrators making amends to their victims.Шаблон:Sfn
Mandela named Tutu as the chair of the TRC, with Boraine as his deputy.Шаблон:Sfnm The commission was a significant undertaking, employing over 300 staff, divided into three committees, and holding as many as four hearings simultaneously.Шаблон:Sfn In the TRC, Tutu advocated "restorative justice", something which he considered characteristic of traditional African jurisprudence "in the spirit of ubuntu".Шаблон:Sfn As head of the commission, Tutu had to deal with its various inter-personal problems, with much suspicion between those on its board who had been anti-apartheid activists and those who had supported the apartheid system.Шаблон:Sfn He acknowledged that "we really were like a bunch of prima donnas, frequently hypersensitive, often taking umbrage easily at real or imagined slights."Шаблон:Sfn Tutu opened meetings with prayers and often referred to Christian teachings when discussing the TRC's work, frustrating some who saw him as incorporating too many religious elements into an expressly secular body.Шаблон:Sfn
The first hearing took place in April 1996.Шаблон:Sfn The hearings were publicly televised and had a considerable impact on South African society.Шаблон:Sfn He had very little control over the committee responsible for granting amnesty, instead chairing the committee which heard accounts of human rights abuses perpetrated by both anti-apartheid and apartheid figures.Шаблон:Sfn While listening to the testimony of victims, Tutu was sometimes overwhelmed by emotion and cried during the hearings.Шаблон:Sfn He singled out those victims who expressed forgiveness towards those who had harmed them and used these individuals as his leitmotif.Шаблон:Sfn The ANC's image was tarnished by the revelations that some of its activists had engaged in torture, attacks on civilians, and other human rights abuses. It sought to suppress part of the final TRC report, infuriating Tutu.Шаблон:Sfnm He warned of the ANC's "abuse of power", stating that "yesterday's oppressed can quite easily become today's oppressors... We've seen it happen all over the world and we shouldn't be surprised if it happens here."Шаблон:Sfn Tutu presented the five-volume TRC report to Mandela in a public ceremony in Pretoria in October 1998.Шаблон:Sfn Ultimately, Tutu was pleased with the TRC's achievement, believing that it would aid long-term reconciliation, although he recognised its short-comings.Шаблон:Sfn
Social and international issues: 1999–2009
Post-apartheid, Tutu's status as a gay rights activist kept him in the public eye more than any other issue facing the Anglican Church;Шаблон:Sfn his views on the issue became well known through his speeches and sermons.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu equated discrimination against homosexuals with discrimination against black people and women.Шаблон:Sfn After the 1998 Lambeth Conference of bishops reaffirmed the church's opposition to same-sex sexual acts, Tutu stated that he was "ashamed to be an Anglican."Шаблон:Sfn He thought Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams was too accommodating towards Anglican conservatives who wanted to eject North American Anglican churches from the Anglican Communion after they expressed a pro-gay rights stance.Шаблон:Sfn In 2007, Tutu accused the church of being obsessed with homosexuality, declaring: "If God, as they say, is homophobic, I wouldn't worship that God."[3]
Tutu also spoke out on the need to combat the HIV/AIDS pandemic, in June 2003 stating that "Apartheid tried to destroy our people and apartheid failed. If we don't act against HIV-AIDS, it may succeed, for it is already decimating our population."Шаблон:Sfn On the April 2005 election of Pope Benedict XVI—who was known for his conservative views on issues of gender and sexuality—Tutu described it as unfortunate that the Roman Catholic Church was now unlikely to change either its opposition to the use of condoms "amidst the fight against HIV/AIDS" or its opposition to the ordination of women priests.[4] To help combat child trafficking, in 2006 Tutu launched a global campaign, organised by the aid organisation Plan, to ensure that all children are registered at birth.[5]
Tutu retained his interest in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and after the signing of the Oslo Accords was invited to Tel Aviv to attend the Peres Center for Peace.Шаблон:Sfn He became increasingly frustrated following the collapse of the 2000 Camp David Summit,Шаблон:Sfn and in 2002 gave a widely publicised speech denouncing Israeli policy regarding the Palestinians and calling for sanctions against Israel.Шаблон:Sfn Comparing the Israeli-Palestinian situation with that in South Africa, he said that "one reason we succeeded in South Africa that is missing in the Middle East is quality of leadership – leaders willing to make unpopular compromises, to go against their own constituencies, because they have the wisdom to see that would ultimately make peace possible."Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was named to head a United Nations fact-finding mission to Beit Hanoun in the Gaza Strip to investigate the November 2006 incident in which soldiers from the Israel Defense Forces killed 19 civilians.[6] Israeli officials expressed concern that the report would be biased against Israel. Tutu cancelled the trip in mid-December, saying that Israel had refused to grant him the necessary travel clearance after more than a week of discussions.[7]
In 2003, Tutu was the scholar in residence at the University of North Florida.Шаблон:Sfn It was there, in February, that he broke his normal rule on not joining protests outside South Africa by taking part in a New York City demonstration against plans for the United States to launch the Iraq War.Шаблон:Sfnm He telephoned Condoleezza Rice urging the United States government not to go to war without a resolution from the United Nations Security Council.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu questioned why Iraq was being singled out for allegedly possessing weapons of mass destruction when Europe, India, and Pakistan also had many such devices.[8] In 2004, he appeared in Honor Bound to Defend Freedom, an Off Broadway play in New York City critical of the American detention of prisoners at Guantánamo Bay.[9] In January 2005, he added his voice to the growing dissent over terrorist suspects held at Guantánamo's Camp X-Ray, stating that these detentions without trial were "utterly unacceptable" and comparable to the apartheid-era detentions.[10] He also criticised the UK's introduction of measures to detain terrorist subjects for 28 days without trial.[11] In 2012, he called for US President George W. Bush and British Prime Minister Tony Blair to be tried by the International Criminal Court for initiating the Iraq War.[12]
In 2004, he gave the inaugural lecture at the Church of Christ the King, where he commended the achievements made in South Africa over the previous decade although warned of widening wealth disparity among its population.Шаблон:Sfn He questioned the government's spending on armaments, its policy regarding Robert Mugabe's government in Zimbabwe, and the manner in which Nguni-speakers dominated senior positions, stating that this latter issue would stoke ethnic tensions.Шаблон:Sfn He made the same points three months later when giving the annual Nelson Mandela Lecture in Johannesburg.Шаблон:Sfn There, he charged the ANC under Thabo Mbeki's leadership of demanding "sycophantic, obsequious conformity" among its members.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu and Mbeki had long had a strained relationship; Mbeki had accused Tutu of criminalising the ANC's military struggle against apartheid through the TRC, while Tutu disliked Mbeki's active neglect of the HIV/AIDS pandemic.Шаблон:Sfn Like Mandela before him, Mbeki accused Tutu of being a populist, further claiming that the cleric had no understanding of the ANC's inner workings.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu later criticised ANC leader and South African President Jacob Zuma. In 2006, he criticised Zuma's "moral failings" as a result of accusations of rape and corruption that he was facing.[13] In 2007, he again criticised South Africa's policy of "quiet diplomacy" toward Mugabe's government, calling for the Southern Africa Development Community to chair talks between Mugabe's ZANU-PF and the opposition Movement for Democratic Change, to set firm deadlines for action, with consequences if they were not met.[14] In 2008, he called for a UN Peacekeeping force to be sent to Zimbabwe.[15]
Before the 31st G8 summit at Gleneagles, Scotland, in 2005, Tutu called on world leaders to promote free trade with poorer countries and to end expensive taxes on anti-AIDS drugs.[16] In July 2007, Tutu was declared Chair of The Elders, a group of world leaders put together to contribute their wisdom, kindness, leadership, and integrity to tackle some of the world's toughest problems.[17] Tutu served in this capacity until May 2013. Upon stepping down and becoming an Honorary Elder, he said: "As Elders we should always oppose presidents for Life. After six wonderful years as Chair, I am sad to say that it was time for me to step down."[18] Tutu led The Elders' visit to Sudan in October 2007 – their first mission after the group was founded – to foster peace in the Darfur crisis. "Our hope is that we can keep Darfur in the spotlight and spur on governments to help keep peace in the region", said Tutu.[19] He has also travelled with Elders delegations to Ivory Coast, Cyprus, Ethiopia, India, South Sudan, and the Middle East.[20]
Tutu's Nobel Prize medal was stolen in June 2007 from his home in Johannesburg, but was recovered a week later.[21]
During the 2008 Tibetan unrest, Tutu marched in a pro-Tibet demonstration in San Francisco; there, he called on heads of states to boycott the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in Beijing "for the sake of the beautiful people of Tibet".[22] Tutu invited the Tibetan Buddhist leader, the 14th Dalai Lama, to attend his 80th birthday in October 2011, although the South African government did not grant him entry; observers suggested that they had not given permission so as not to offend the People's Republic of China, a major trading partner.[23] In 2009, Tutu assisted in the establishing of the Solomon Islands' Truth and Reconciliation Commission, modelled after the South African body of the same name.[24] He also attended the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen,[25] and later publicly called for fossil fuel divestment, comparing it to disinvestment from apartheid-era South Africa.[26] Tutu appeared as a guest on the American talk show The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on March 4, 2009, an episode that earned the program a Peabody Award.[27]
Retirement from public life: 2010–2021
In October 2010, Tutu announced his retirement from public life so that he could spend more time "at home with my family – reading and writing and praying and thinking".[28] In 2013, he declared that he would no longer vote for the ANC, stating that it had done a poor job in countering inequality, violence, and corruption;[29] he welcomed the launch of a new party, Agang South Africa.[30] After Mandela's death in December, Tutu initially stated that he had not been invited to the funeral; after the government denied this, Tutu announced his attendance.[31] He criticised the memorials held for Mandela, stating that they gave too much prominence to the ANC and marginalised Afrikaners.[32]
Tutu maintained an interest in social issues. In 2011, he called on the Anglican Church of Southern Africa to conduct same-sex marriages;[33] in 2015 he gave a blessing at his daughter Mpho's marriage to a woman in the Netherlands.[34] In 2014, he came out in support of legalised assisted dying,[35][36] revealing that he wanted that option open to him.[37]
Tutu continued commenting on international affairs. In November 2012, he published a letter of support for the imprisoned US military whistleblower Chelsea Manning.[38] In May 2014, Tutu visited Fort McMurray, in the heart of the Canada's oil sands, condemning the "negligence and greed" of oil extraction.[39] A month earlier he had called for "an apartheid-style boycott [of corporations financing the injustice of climate change] to save the planet".[40] In August 2017, Tutu was among ten Nobel Peace Prize laureates who urged Saudi Arabia to stop the execution of 14 participants of the 2011–12 Saudi Arabian protests.[41] In September, Tutu asked Myanmar's leader Aung San Suu Kyi to halt the army's persecution of the country's Muslim Rohingya minority.[42] In December 2017, he was among those to condemn US President Donald Trump's decision to officially recognise Jerusalem as Israel's capital.[43] Tutu's last prominent public statement on world affairs was an op-ed published in the UK Guardian on 30 December 2020, in which he called for incoming U.S. President Joe Biden to declare Israel had nuclear weapons and to eliminate all financial aid to the country (he believed that doing so would lead to the fall of Israel's "apartheid" system because it would remove alleged Israeli deterrence over the Arabs and force a "peace agreement").[44]
Death
Tutu died from cancer at the Oasis Frail Care Centre in Cape Town on 26 December 2021, aged 90.[45][46] South African president Cyril Ramaphosa described Tutu's death as "another chapter of bereavement in our nation's farewell to a generation of outstanding South Africans who have bequeathed us a liberated South Africa."[47]
Tutu's body lay in state for two days before the funeral.[48] For several days before the funeral the cathedral rang its bells for 10 minutes each day at noon and national landmarks, including Table Mountain, were illuminated in purple in Tutu's honour.[49] A Funeral Mass was held for Tutu at St. George's Cathedral in Cape Town on 1 January 2022.[50][51] President Cyril Ramaphosa gave a eulogy, and Michael Nuttall, the former bishop of Natal, delivered the sermon. Attendance at the funeral was limited to 100 due to COVID-19 pandemic restrictions. During the funeral, Tutu's body lay in a "plain pine coffin, the cheapest available at his request to avoid any ostentatious displays".[52] Following the funeral, Tutu's remains were to be aquamated; his ashes are interred in St. George's Cathedral.[53]
Personal life and personality
Shirley Du Boulay noted that Tutu was "a man of many layers" and "contradictory tensions".Шаблон:Sfn His personality has been described as warm,Шаблон:Sfn exuberant,Шаблон:Sfn and outgoing.Шаблон:Sfn Du Boulay noted that his "typical African warmth and a spontaneous lack of inhibition" proved shocking to many of the "reticent English" whom he encountered when in England,Шаблон:Sfn but that it also meant that he had the "ability to endear himself to virtually everyone who actually meets him".Шаблон:Sfn
Du Boulay noted that as a child, Tutu had been hard-working and "unusually intelligent".Шаблон:Sfn She added that he had a "gentle, caring temperament and would have nothing to do with anything that hurt others",Шаблон:Sfn commenting on how he had "a quicksilver mind, a disarming honesty".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu was rarely angry in his personal contacts with others, although could become so if he felt that his integrity was being challenged.Шаблон:Sfn He had a tendency to be highly trusting, something which some of those close to him sometimes believed was unwise in various situations.Шаблон:Sfn He was also reportedly bad at managing finances and prone to overspending, resulting in accusations of irresponsibility and extravagance.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu had a passion for preserving African traditions of courtesy.Шаблон:Sfn He could be offended by discourteous behaviour and careless language,Шаблон:Sfn as well as by swearing and ethnic slurs.Шаблон:Sfnm He could get very upset if a member of his staff forgot to thank him or did not apologise for being late to a prayer session.Шаблон:Sfn He also disliked gossip and discouraged it among his staff.Шаблон:Sfnm He was very punctual,Шаблон:Sfn and insisted on punctuality among those in his employ.Шаблон:Sfn Du Boulay noted that "his attention to the detail of people's lives is remarkable", for he would be meticulous in recording and noting people's birthdays and anniversaries.Шаблон:Sfn He was attentive to his parishioners, making an effort to visit and spend time with them regularly; this included making an effort to visit parishioners who disliked him.Шаблон:Sfn
According to Du Boulay, Tutu had "a deep need to be loved",Шаблон:Sfn a facet that he recognised about himself and referred to as a "horrible weakness".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu has also been described as being sensitive,Шаблон:Sfnm and very easily hurt, an aspect of his personality which he concealed from the public eye;Шаблон:Sfn Du Boulay noted that he "reacts to emotional pain" in an "almost childlike way".Шаблон:Sfn He never denied being ambitious,Шаблон:Sfn and acknowledged that he enjoyed the limelight which his position gave him, something that his wife often teased him about.Шаблон:Sfn He was, according to Du Boulay, "a man of passionate emotions" who was quick to both laugh and cry.Шаблон:Sfn
As well as English, Tutu could speak Zulu, Sotho, Tswana, and Xhosa.Шаблон:Sfn He was often praised for his public speaking abilities; Du Boulay noted that his "star quality enables him to hold an audience spellbound".Шаблон:Sfn Gish noted that "Tutu's voice and manner could light up an audience; he never sounded puritanical or humourless".Шаблон:Sfn Quick witted, he used humour to try and win over audiences.Шаблон:Sfn He had a talent for mimicry , according to Du Boulay, "his humour has none of the cool acerbity that makes for real wit".Шаблон:Sfn His application of humour included jokes that made a point about apartheid;Шаблон:Sfn "the whites think the black people want to drive them into the sea. What they forget is, with apartheid on the beaches – we can't even go to the sea".Шаблон:Sfn In a speech made at the Sixth Assembly of the World Council of Churches in Vancouver he drew laughs from the audience for referring to South Africa as having a "few local problems".Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu had a lifelong love of literature and reading,Шаблон:Sfn and was a fan of cricket.Шаблон:Sfnm To relax, he enjoyed listening to classical music and reading books on politics or religion.Шаблон:Sfn His favourite foods included samosas, marshmallows, fat cakes, and Yogi Sip.Шаблон:Sfnm When hosts asked what his culinary tastes were, his wife responded: "think of a five-year old".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu woke at 4Шаблон:Nbspam every morning, before engaging in an early morning walk, prayers, and the Eucharist.Шаблон:Sfnm On Fridays, he fasted until supper.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu was a committed Christian from boyhood.Шаблон:Sfn Prayer was a big part of his life; he often spent an hour in prayer at the start of each day, and would ensure that every meeting or interview that he was part of was preceded by a short prayer.Шаблон:Sfn He was even known to often pray while driving.Шаблон:Sfn He read the Bible every day[54] and recommended that people read it as a collection of books, not a single constitutional document: "You have to understand that the Bible is really a library of books and it has different categories of material", he said. "There are certain parts which you have to say no to. The Bible accepted slavery. St. Paul said women should not speak in church at all and there are people who have used that to say women should not be ordained. There are many things that you shouldn't accept."[54]
On 2 July 1955, Tutu married Nomalizo Leah Shenxane, a teacher whom he had met while at college. They had four children: Trevor Thamsanqa, Theresa Thandeka, Naomi Nontombi and Mpho Andrea, all of whom attended the Waterford Kamhlaba School in Swaziland.[55] Du Boulay referred to him as "a loving and concerned father",Шаблон:Sfn while Allen described him as a "loving but strict father" to his children.Шаблон:Sfn
Ideology
Political views
Anti-apartheid views
Allen stated that the theme running through Tutu's campaigning was that of "democracy, human rights and tolerance, to be achieved by dialogue and accommodation between enemies."Шаблон:Sfn Racial equality was a core principle,Шаблон:Sfn and his opposition to apartheid was unequivocal.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu believed that the apartheid system had to be wholly dismantled rather than being reformed in a piecemeal fashion.Шаблон:Sfnm He compared the apartheid ethos of South Africa's National Party to the ideas of the Nazi Party, and drew comparisons between apartheid policy and the Holocaust. He noted that whereas the latter was a quicker and more efficient way of exterminating whole populations, the National Party's policy of forcibly relocating black South Africans to areas where they lacked access to food and sanitation had much the same result.Шаблон:Sfn In his words, "Apartheid is as evil and as vicious as Nazism and Communism."Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu never became anti-white, in part due to his many positive experiences with white people.Шаблон:Sfn In his speeches, he stressed that it was apartheid—rather than white people—that was the enemy.Шаблон:Sfn He promoted racial reconciliation between South Africa's communities, believing that most blacks fundamentally wanted to live in harmony with whites,Шаблон:Sfn although he stressed that reconciliation would only be possible among equals, after blacks had been given full civil rights.Шаблон:Sfn He tried to cultivate goodwill from the country's white community, making a point of showing white individuals gratitude when they made concessions to black demands.Шаблон:Sfn He also spoke to many white audiences, urging them to support his cause, referring to it as the "winning side",Шаблон:Sfnm and reminding them that when apartheid had been overthrown, black South Africans would remember who their friends had been.Шаблон:Sfn When he held public prayers, he always included mention of those who upheld apartheid, such as politicians and police, alongside the system's victims, emphasising his view that all humans were the children of God.Шаблон:Sfn He stated that "the people who are perpetrators of injury in our land are not sporting horns or tails. They're just ordinary people who are scared. Wouldn't you be scared if you were outnumbered five to one?"Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu was always committed to non-violent activism,Шаблон:Sfnm and in his speeches was also cautious never to threaten or endorse violence, even when he warned that it was a likely outcome of government policy.Шаблон:Sfnm He nevertheless described himself as a "man of peace" rather than a pacifist.Шаблон:Sfnm He, for instance, accepted that violence had been necessary to stop Nazism.Шаблон:Sfn In the South African situation, he criticised the use of violence by both the government and anti-apartheid groups, although he was also critical of white South Africans who would only condemn the use of violence by the latter, regarding such a position as a case of a double standard.Шаблон:Sfn To end apartheid, he advocated foreign economic pressure be put on South Africa.Шаблон:Sfn To critics who claimed that this measure would only cause further hardship for impoverished black South Africans, he responded that said communities were already experiencing significant hardship and that it would be better if they were "suffering with a purpose".Шаблон:Sfnm
During the apartheid period, he criticised the black leaders of the Bantustans, describing them as "largely corrupt men looking after their own interests, lining their pockets";Шаблон:Sfn Buthelezi, the leader of the Zulu Bantustan, privately claimed that there was "something radically wrong" with Tutu's personality.Шаблон:Sfn In the 1980s, Tutu also condemned Western political leaders, namely Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, and West Germany's Helmut Kohl, for retaining links with the South African government, stipulating that "support of this racist policy is racist".Шаблон:Sfn Regarding Reagan, he stated that although he once thought him a "crypto-racist" for his soft stance on the National Party administration, he would "say now that he is a racist pure and simple".Шаблон:Sfn He and his wife boycotted a lecture given at the Federal Theological Institute by former British Prime Minister Alec Douglas-Home in the 1960s; Tutu noted that they did so because Britain's Conservative Party had "behaved abominably over issues which touched our hearts most nearly".Шаблон:Sfnm Later in life, he also spoke out against various African leaders, for instance describing Zimbabwe's Robert Mugabe as the "caricature of an African dictator", who had "gone bonkers in a big way".Шаблон:Sfn
Broader political views
According to Du Boulay, "Tutu's politics spring directly and inevitably from his Christianity."Шаблон:Sfn He believed that it was the duty of Christians to oppose unjust laws,Шаблон:Sfn and that there could be no separation between the religious and the political just as—according to Anglican theology—there is no separation between the spiritual realm (the Holy Ghost) and the material one (Jesus Christ).Шаблон:Sfn However, he was adamant that he was not personally a politician.Шаблон:Sfn He felt that religious leaders like himself should stay outside of party politics, citing the example of Abel Muzorewa in Zimbabwe, Makarios III in Cyprus, and Ruhollah Khomeini in Iran as examples in which such crossovers proved problematic.Шаблон:Sfnm He tried to avoid alignment with any particular political party; in the 1980s, for instance, he signed a plea urging anti-apartheid activists in the United States to support both the ANC and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).Шаблон:Sfn Du Boulay, however, noted that Tutu was "most at home" with the UDF umbrella organisation,Шаблон:Sfn and that his views on a multi-racial alliance against apartheid placed him closer to the approach of the ANC and UDF than the blacks-only approach favoured by the PAC and Black Consciousness groups like AZAPO.Шаблон:Sfn When, in the late 1980s, there were suggestions that he should take political office, he rejected the idea.Шаблон:Sfn
When pressed to describe his ideological position, Tutu described himself as a socialist.Шаблон:Sfn In 1986, he related that "[a]ll my experiences with capitalism, I'm afraid, have indicated that it encourages some of the worst features in people. Eat or be eaten. It is underlined by the survival of the fittest. I can't buy that. I mean, maybe it's the awful face of capitalism, but I haven't seen the other face."[56] Also in the 1980s, he was reported as saying that "apartheid has given free enterprise a bad name".Шаблон:Sfn While identifying with socialism, he opposed forms of socialism like Marxism–Leninism which promoted communism, being critical of Marxism–Leninism's promotion of atheism.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu often used the aphorism that "African communism" is an oxymoron because—in his view—Africans are intrinsically spiritual and this conflicts with the atheistic nature of Marxism.Шаблон:Sfn He was critical of the Marxist–Leninist governments in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, comparing the way that they treated their populations with the way that the National Party treated South Africans.Шаблон:Sfn In 1985, he stated that he hated Marxism–Leninism "with every fiber of my being" although sought to explain why black South Africans turned to it as an ally: "when you are in a dungeon and a hand is stretched out to free you, you do not ask for the pedigree of the hand owner."Шаблон:Sfnm
Nelson Mandela had foregrounded the idea of Ubuntu as being of importance to South Africa's political framework.Шаблон:Sfn In 1986, Tutu had defined Ubuntu: "It refers to gentleness, to compassion, to hospitality, to openness to others, to vulnerability, to be available to others and to know that you are bound up with them in the bundle of life."Шаблон:Sfn Reflecting this view of ubuntu, Tutu was fond of the Xhosa saying that "a person is a person through other persons".Шаблон:Sfn
Theology
Tutu was attracted to Anglicanism because of what he saw as its tolerance and inclusiveness, its appeal to reason alongside scripture and tradition, and the freedom that its constituent churches had from any centralized authority.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu's approach to Anglicanism has been characterised as having been Anglo-Catholic in nature.Шаблон:Sfn He regarded the Anglican Communion as a family, replete with its internal squabbles.Шаблон:Sfnm
Tutu rejected the idea that any particular variant of theology was universally applicable, instead maintaining that all understandings of God had to be "contextual" in relating to the socio-cultural conditions in which they existed.Шаблон:Sfnm In the 1970s, Tutu became an advocate of both black theology and African theology, seeking ways to fuse the two schools of Christian theological thought.Шаблон:Sfn Unlike other theologians, like John Mbiti, who saw the traditions as largely incompatible, Tutu emphasised the similarities between the two.Шаблон:Sfn He believed that both theological approaches had arisen in contexts where black humanity had been defined in terms of white norms and values, in societies where "to be really human", the black man "had to see himself and to be seen as a chocolate coloured white man".Шаблон:Sfn He also argued that both black and African theology shared a repudiation of the supremacy of Western values.Шаблон:Sfn In doing so he spoke of an underlying unity of Africans and the African diaspora, stating that "All of us are bound to Mother Africa by invisible but tenacious bonds. She has nurtured the deepest things in us blacks."Шаблон:Sfn
He became, according to Du Boulay, "one of the most eloquent and persuasive communicators" of black theology.Шаблон:Sfn He expressed his views on theology largely through sermons and addresses rather than in extended academic treatises.Шаблон:Sfn Tutu expressed the view that Western theology sought answers to questions that Africans were not asking.Шаблон:Sfn For Tutu, two major questions were being posed by African Christianity; how to replace imported Christian expressions of faith with something authentically African, and how to liberate people from bondage.Шаблон:Sfn He believed that there were many comparisons to be made between contemporary African understandings of God and those featured in the Old Testament.Шаблон:Sfn He nevertheless criticised African theology for failing to sufficiently address contemporary societal problems, and suggested that to correct this it should learn from the black theology tradition.Шаблон:Sfn
When chairing the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Tutu advocated an explicitly Christian model of reconciliation, as part of which he believed that South Africans had to face up to the damages that they had caused and accept the consequences of their actions.Шаблон:Sfn As part of this, he believed that the perpetrators and beneficiaries of apartheid must admit to their actions but that the system's victims should respond generously, stating that it was a "gospel imperative" to forgive.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, he argued that those responsible had to display true repentance in the form of restitution.Шаблон:Sfn
Reception and legacy
Gish noted that by the time of apartheid's fall, Tutu had attained "worldwide respect" for his "uncompromising stand for justice and reconciliation and his unmatched integrity".Шаблон:Sfn According to Allen, Tutu "made a powerful and unique contribution to publicizing the antiapartheid struggle abroad", particularly in the United States.Шаблон:Sfn In the latter country, he was able to rise to prominence as a South African anti-apartheid activist because—unlike Mandela and other members of the ANC—he had no links to the South African Communist Party and thus was more acceptable to Americans amid the Cold War anti-communist sentiment of the period.Шаблон:Sfn In the United States, he was often compared to Martin Luther King Jr., with the African-American civil rights activist Jesse Jackson referring to him as "the Martin Luther King of South Africa".Шаблон:Sfn After the end of apartheid, Tutu became "perhaps the world's most prominent religious leader advocating gay and lesbian rights", according to Allen.Шаблон:Sfn Ultimately, Allen thought that perhaps Tutu's "greatest legacy" was the fact that he gave "to the world as it entered the twenty-first century an African model for expressing the nature of human community".Шаблон:Sfn
During Tutu's rise to notability during the 1970s and 1980s, responses to him were "sharply polarized".Шаблон:Sfn Noting that he was "simultaneously loved and hated, honoured and vilified",Шаблон:Sfn Du Boulay attributed his divisive reception to the fact that "strong people evoke strong emotions".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu gained much adulation from black journalists, inspired imprisoned anti-apartheid activists, and led to many black parents' naming their children after him.Шаблон:Sfn For many black South Africans, he was a respected religious leader and a symbol of black achievement.Шаблон:Sfn By 1984 he was—according to Gish—"the personification of the South African freedom struggle".Шаблон:Sfn In 1988, Du Boulay described him as "a spokesman for his people, a voice for the voiceless".Шаблон:Sfn
The response he received from South Africa's white minority was more mixed. Most of those who criticised him were conservative whites who did not want a shift away from apartheid and white-minority rule.Шаблон:Sfnm Many of these whites were angered that he was calling for economic sanctions against South Africa and that he was warning that racial violence was impending.Шаблон:Sfn Said whites often accused him of being a tool of the communists.Шаблон:Sfn This hostility was exacerbated by the government's campaign to discredit Tutu and distort his image,Шаблон:Sfn which included repeatedly misquoting him to present his statements out of context.Шаблон:Sfn According to Du Boulay, the SABC and much of the white press went to "extraordinary attempts to discredit him", something that "made it hard to know the man himself".Шаблон:Sfn Allen noted that in 1984, Tutu was "the black leader white South Africans most loved to hate" and that this antipathy extended beyond supporters of the far-right government to liberals too.Шаблон:Sfn The fact that he was "an object of hate" for many was something that deeply pained him.Шаблон:Sfn
Tutu also drew criticism from within the anti-apartheid movement and the black South African community. He was criticised repeatedly for making statements on behalf of black South Africans without consulting other community leaders first.Шаблон:Sfn Some black anti-apartheid activists regarded him as too moderate,Шаблон:Sfnm and in particular too focused on cultivating white goodwill.Шаблон:Sfn The African-American civil rights campaigner Bernice Powell, for instance, complained that he was "too nice to white people".Шаблон:Sfn According to Gish, Tutu "faced the perpetual dilemma of all moderates – he was often viewed suspiciously by the two hostile sides he sought to bring together".Шаблон:Sfn Tutu's critical view of Marxist-oriented communism and the governments of the Eastern Bloc, and the comparisons he drew between these administrations and far-right ideologies like Nazism and apartheid brought criticism from the South African Communist Party in 1984.Шаблон:Sfn After the transition to universal suffrage, Tutu's criticism of presidents Mbeki and Zuma brought objections from their supporters; in 2006, Zuma's personal advisor Elias Khumalo claimed that it was a double standard that Tutu could "accept the apology from the apartheid government that committed unspeakable atrocities against millions of South Africans", yet "cannot find it in his heart to accept the apology" from Zuma.[57]
Honours
Tutu gained many international awards and honorary degrees, particularly in South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States.Шаблон:Sfn By 2003, he had approximately 100 honorary degrees;Шаблон:Sfn he was, for example, the first person to be awarded an honorary doctorate by Ruhr University in West Germany, and the third person to whom Columbia University in the U.S. agreed to award an honorary doctorate off-campus.Шаблон:Sfn Many schools and scholarships were named after him.Шаблон:Sfn Mount Allison University in Sackville, New Brunswick was the first Canadian institution to award Tutu an honorary doctorate in 1988.[58] In 2000, the Munsieville Library in Klerksdorp was renamed the Desmond Tutu Library.Шаблон:Sfn The Desmond Tutu School of Theology at Fort Hare University was launched in 2002.Шаблон:Sfn
On 16 October 1984, Tutu was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Nobel Committee cited his "role as a unifying leader figure in the campaign to resolve the problem of apartheid in South Africa".[59] This was seen as a gesture of support for him and the South African Council of Churches which he led at that time. In 1987 Tutu was awarded the Pacem in Terris Award,[60] named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of good will to secure peace among all nations.[61]
In 1985 the City of Reggio Emilia named Tutu an honorary citizen together with Albertina Sisulu.[62]
In 2000, Tutu received the Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service.[63]
In 2003, Tutu received the Golden Plate Award of the Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Coretta Scott King.[64][65] In 2008, Governor Rod Blagojevich of Illinois proclaimed 13 May 'Desmond Tutu Day'.[66]
In 2015, Queen Elizabeth II appointed Tutu an Honorary Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH).[67] Queen Elizabeth II appointed Tutu as a Bailiff Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of St. John in September 2017.[68]
In 2010, Tutu delivered the Bynum Tudor Lecture at the University of Oxford and became a visiting fellow at Kellogg College, Oxford.[69] In 2013, he received the £1.1m (US$1.6m) Templeton Prize for "his life-long work in advancing spiritual principles such as love and forgiveness".[70] In 2018 the fossil of a Devonian tetrapod was found in Grahamstown by Rob Gess of the Albany Museum; this tetrapod was named Tutusius umlambo in Tutu's honour.[71]
Writings
Tutu is the author of seven collections of sermons in addition to other writings:
- Crying in the Wilderness, Eerdmans, 1982. Шаблон:ISBN
- Hope and Suffering: Sermons and Speeches, Skotaville, 1983. Шаблон:ISBN
- The War Against Children: South Africa's Youngest Victims, Human Rights First, 1986. Шаблон:ISBN
- The Words of Desmond Tutu, Newmarket, 1989. Шаблон:ISBN
- The Rainbow People of God: The Making of a Peaceful Revolution, Doubleday, 1994. Шаблон:ISBN
- Worshipping Church in Africa, Duke University Press, 1995. ASIN B000K5WB02
- The Essential Desmond Tutu, David Phillips Publishers, 1997. Шаблон:ISBN
- No Future Without Forgiveness, Doubleday, 1999. Шаблон:ISBN
- An African Prayerbook, Doubleday, 2000. Шаблон:ISBN
- God Has a Dream: A Vision of Hope for Our Time, Doubleday, 2004. Шаблон:ISBN
- Desmond and the Very Mean Word, Candlewick, 2012. Шаблон:ISBN
- The Book of Forgiving: The Fourfold Path for Healing Ourselves and Our World, HarperOne, 2015. Шаблон:ISBN
- The Book of Joy: Lasting Happiness in a Changing World, coauthored by His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, 2016, Шаблон:ISBN
See also
- List of black Nobel laureates
- List of civil rights leaders
- List of peace activists
- Political theology in Sub-Saharan Africa
- Reconciliation theology
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Tlhagale, Buti, and Itumeleng Mosala, eds. Hammering Swords into Ploughshares: Essays in Honor of Archbishop Mpilo Desmond Tutu (Eerdmans, 1987).
- "Desmond Tutu". in Gale Literature: Contemporary Authors (Gale, 2013) online
- "Desmond Mpilo Tutu". in Contemporary Black Biography (44, Gale, 2004) online
- "Bishop Tutu's Christology." Cross Currents 34 (1984): 492–99.
Further reading
- Battle, Michael. Desmond Tutu: A Spiritual Biography of South Africa's Confessor (Westminster John Knox Press, 2021).
- Kokobili, Alexander. "An insight on Archbishop Desmond Tutu's struggle against apartheid in South Africa." Kairos: Evangelical Journal of Theology 13.1 (2019): 115-126. online
- Maluleke, Tinyiko. "Forgiveness and Reconciliation in the Life and Work of Desmond Tutu." International Review of Mission 109.2 (2020): 210-221. onlineШаблон:Dead linkШаблон:Cbignore
- Maluleke, Tinyiko. "The Liberating Humour of Desmond Tutu." International Review of Mission 110.2 (2021): 327-340. online
- Nadar, Sarojini. "Beyond a "Political Priest": Exploring Desmond Tutu as a 'Freedom-Fighter Mystic'." Black Theology (2021): 1-8.
- Pali, K. J. "The leadership role of emeritus Archbishop Desmond Tutu in the social development of the South African society." Stellenbosch Theological Journal 5.1 (2019): 263-297. online
- Шаблон:Cite journal
External links
- The Desmond & Leah Tutu Legacy Foundation SA
- Desmond Tutu Peace Foundation USA
- Tutu Foundation UK
- Шаблон:C-SPAN
- Archbishop Desmond Tutu Biography and Interview with American Academy of Achievement
- Шаблон:Nobelprize
- Шаблон:Discogs artist
- Шаблон:IMDb name
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- Английская Википедия
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