Английская Википедия:Deva (Hinduism)

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Файл:Indra, Chief of the Gods LACMA M.69.13.4 (1 of 5).jpg
In the earliest Vedic literature, Devas are benevolent supernatural beings;[1] above, a gilt-copper statue of Indra, "Chief of the Gods", from 16th-century Nepal.

Шаблон:Contains special characters Шаблон:Infobox Hindu term

Deva (Шаблон:IPAc-en; Sanskrit: Шаблон:Lang) means "shiny", "exalted", "heavenly being", "divine being", "anything of excellence",[1] and is also one of the Sanskrit terms used to indicate a deity in Hinduism.[2] Deva is a masculine term; the feminine equivalent is Devi. The word is a cognate with Latin deus ("god") and Greek Zeus.

In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Devas[3][4][5] and Asuras.[6][7] The concepts and legends evolved in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as Deva-Asuras. In post-Vedic Hindu texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[8][9] In some medieval works of Indian literature, Devas are also referred to as Suras and contrasted with their equally powerful but malevolent half-brothers, referred to as the Asuras.[10]

Devas, along with Asuras, Yakshas (nature spirits), and Rakshasas (ghoulish ogres/demons), are part of Indian mythology, and Devas feature in many cosmological theories in Hinduism.[11][12]

Etymology

Deva is a Sanskrit word found in Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE. Sir Monier Monier-Williams translates it as "heavenly, divine, terrestrial things of high excellence, exalted, shining ones".[2][13] The concept also is used to refer to deity.[2]

The Sanskrit deva- derives from Indo-Iranian *daiv- which in turn descends from the Proto-Indo-European word, *deiwo-, originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "shining", which is a (not synchronic Sanskrit) vrddhi derivative from *diw, zero-grade of the root *dyew- meaning "to shine", especially as the day-lit sky.[14] The feminine form of *deiwos is *deiwih2, which descends into Indic languages as devi, in that context meaning "female deity". Also deriving from *deiwos, and thus cognates of deva, are "Zeys/Ζεύς" - "Dias/Δίας", the Greek father of the gods, Lithuanian Dievas (Latvian Dievs, Prussian Deiwas), Germanic Tiwaz (seen in English "Tuesday") and the related Old Norse Tivar (gods), and Latin Deus "god" and divus "divine", from which the English words "divine" and "deity" are derived. It is related to *Dyeus which while from the same root, may originally have referred to the "heavenly shining father", and hence to "Father Sky", the chief God of the Indo-European pantheon, continued in Sanskrit Dyaus. The abode of the Devas is Dyuloka.[15]

According to Douglas Harper, the etymological roots of Deva mean "a shining one," from *div- "to shine," and it is cognate with Greek dios "divine" and Zeus, and Latin deus "god" (Old Latin deivos).[16] The word "Deva" shares similarities with Persian Daeva.[17][18][19]

Deva is masculine; the related feminine equivalent is devi.[20] Etymologically, Devi is cognate with Latin dea.[21] When capitalized, Devi or Mata refers to a divine mother goddess in Hinduism.[22] Deva is also referred to as Devatā,[13] and Devi as Devika.[20]

The word Deva is also a proper name or part of a name in Indian culture, where it refers to "one who wishes to excel, overcome" or the "seeker of, master of or a best among".[2]

Vedic literature

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Файл:A havan ceremony on the banks of Ganges, Muni ki Reti, Rishikesh.jpg
Shiva/Rudra has been a major Deva in Hinduism since the Vedic times.[23] Above is a meditating statue of him in the Himalayas with Hindus offering prayers.

Samhitas and Brahmanas

Файл:Tani Bunchō - Jyūroku Zenshin no Zu.jpg
The 12 Devas protecting Buddha, by Tani Bunchō. The Hindu Devas were adopted by Japanese Buddhists in the first millennium as Jūni-ten[24]

The Samhitas, which are the oldest layer of text in Vedas enumerate 33 devas,Шаблон:Refn either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus and 2 Asvins in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic texts.[2][5] The Rigveda states in hymn 1.139.11,

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Some devas represent the forces of nature and some represent moral values (such as the Adityas, Varuna, and Mitra), each symbolizing the epitome of a specialized knowledge, creative energy, exalted and magical powers (Siddhis).[25][26] The most referred to Devas in the Rig Veda are Indra, Agni (fire) and Soma, with "fire deity" called the friend of all humanity, it and Soma being the two celebrated in a yajna fire ritual that marks major Hindu ceremonies. Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra, and Prajapati (later Brahma) are gods and hence Devas. Parvati (power and love) and Durga (victory) are some Devis or goddesses. Many of the deities taken together are worshiped as the Vishvedevas.Шаблон:Citation needed

Important Devas

Henotheism

In Vedic literature, Deva is not a monotheistic God; rather a "supernatural, divine" concept manifesting in various ideas and knowledge, in a form that combines excellence in some aspects, wrestling with weakness and questions in other aspects, heroic in their outlook and actions, yet tied up with emotions and desires.[26][27]

Max Muller states that the Vedic hymns are remarkable in calling every one of the different devas as "the only one, the supreme, the greatest".[13] Muller concluded that the Vedic ideas about devas are best understood neither as polytheism nor as monotheism, but as henotheism where gods are equivalent, different perspectives, different aspects of reverence and spirituality, unified by principles of Ṛta and Dharma.[13][28]

Characteristics of Devas in the Vedic literature

Ananda Coomaraswamy states that Devas and Asuras in the Vedic lore are similar to the Olympian gods and Titans of Greek mythology. Both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, with the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.[29][30] According to Coomaraswamy's interpretation of Devas and Asuras, both these natures exist in each human being, both the tyrant and the angel. The best and the worst within each person struggles before choices and one's own nature, and the Hindu formulation of Devas and Asuras is an eternal dance between these within each person.[31][32]

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All-powerful beings, good or evil, are called Devas[2][5] and Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts. A much-studied hymn of the Rigveda states Devav asura (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with Asura adevah (Asuras who are not Devas).[33][34] They are born from the same father, Prajapati, the primordial progenitor; his sons are envisioned as the Asuras and Devas.[35] They all share the same residence (Loka), eat together the same food and drinks (Soma), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asuras who become Devas" from "Asuras who remain Asuras" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.[32][36]

Upanishads

Файл:Vishnu seated on Ananda. Cave3Badami.jpg
Vishnu (above) is one of the Vedic Devas.[37] The third Valli of the Katha Upanishad discusses ethical duties of man through the parable of the chariot as a means to realize the state of Vishnu, one with Self-knowledge.[38][39]

The oldest Upanishads mention Devas, and their struggle with the Asuras. The Kaushitaki Upanishad, for example, in Book 4 states that "Indra was weaker than the Asuras when he did not know his own Atman (soul, self).[40] Once Indra had self-knowledge, he became independent, sovereign and victorious over the Asuras"; similarly, states Kaushitaki Upanishad, "the man who knows his inner self gains independence, sovereignty and is unaffected by all evil".[40]

Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 1.2, describes the battle between Devas and Asuras on various sensory powers.[41] This battle between good and evil fails to produce a victor and simply manifests itself in the perceived universe, as good or evil sights witnessed by beings, as good or evil words shared between people, as good or evil smells of nature, as good or evil feelings experienced, as good or evil thoughts within each person. Finally, the Deva-Asura battle targets the soul, where Asuras fail and Devas succeed, because soul-force is serene and inherently good, asserts Chandogya Upanishad.[41]

Chapter 3.5.2 of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes Devas, Men, and Asuras as sons of Prajapati, the primordial father.[42] Each asks for a lesson on ethics. Prajapati tells the Devas to observe the virtue of temperance (self-restraint, Dama), the Men to observe the virtue of charity (Dana), and Asuras to observe the virtue of compassion (Daya). At the end of the chapter, the Upanishad declares that these are three cardinal virtues that should always be observed by all Devas, Men and Asuras.[42]

Medieval era Indian scholars, in their Bhasya (review and commentaries) on the Upanishads, stated that the discussion of Devas and Asuras in the Upanishads is symbolic, and it represents the good and evil that resides and struggles within each human being. Adi Shankara, for example, in his commentary on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad asserted that Devas represent the human seeking for the sacred and spiritual, while the Asuras represent the human seeking for the worldly excesses.[43] Edelmann and other modern era scholars also state that the Devas versus Asuras discussion in Upanishads is a form of symbolism.[44][45]

In the later primary Upanishadic texts, Devas and Asuras discuss and act to seek knowledge, for different purposes. In one case, for example, they go to Prajāpati, their father, to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.[46] Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.[46]

Puranas and Itihasas

In the Puranas and the Itihasas with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.[8][9] According to the Bhagavad Gita (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (daivi sampad) and the demonic qualities (asuri sampad) within each.[9][47] The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.[9] According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, violence, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).[9][47]

Everyone starts as an Asura in Hindu mythology, born of the same father. "Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for more power, more wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.[48][49] The "Asuras who become Devas" in contrast are driven by an inner voice, seek understanding and meaning, prefer moderation, principled behavior, morals, knowledge, and harmony.[48][49] The hostility between the two is the source of extensive legends and tales in the Puranic and the Epic literature of Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms and without explicit condemnation.[36] Some of these tales are the basis for myths behind major Hindu festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the Ramayana and the legend of Asura Hiranyakashipu and Deva Vishnu as Narasimha,[36] the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of Holika and Holi.[50]

Bhagavata Purana

In Bhagavata Purana, Brahma had ten sons: Marichi, Atri, Angira, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasistha, Daksa, Narada.[51] Marici had a son called Kasyapa.[52] Kasyapa had thirteen wives: Aditi, Diti, Danu, Kadru etc.[53] The sons of Aditi are called Adityas,[54] the sons of Diti are called Daityas,[55] and the sons of Danu are called Danavas.[56] Bṛhaspati (Jupiter, son of Angiras) is a guru of devas (vedic gods). Shukracharya (Venus, son of Bhrigu) is a guru of asuras (vedic demons) or/and Danavas.

Symbolism

Edelmann states that the dichotomies present in the Puranas literature of Hinduism are symbolism for spiritual concepts. For example, god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.[46] Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".[46]

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.[57] In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as Mahabali and Prahlada, conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs, and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.[57] l

Classical Hinduism

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Файл:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Reliëf met Lokapala op de aan Shiva gewijde tempel op de Candi Lara Jonggrang oftewel het Prambanan tempelcomplex TMnr 10016205.jpg
The male Lokapala devas, the guardians of the directions, on the wall of Shiva temple, Prambanan (Java, Indonesia).

In Hinduism, Devas are celestial beings associated with various aspects of the cosmos. Devas such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, form the Hindu trinity known as the Trimurthi and preside over the functioning of the cosmos and the evolution of creation.

Lesser devas may control the forces of nature, such as Vayu, the Lord of the wind, Varuna the Lord of water, and Agni, the lord of fire.

Hinduism also has many other lesser celestial beings, such as the married Gandharvas (male celestial musicians) and Apsaras (female celestial dancers).

Sangam literature

Шаблон:Expand section Sangam literature of Tamil (300BC-300CE) describes the offerings for devas. In Silapathikaram one of the five epics of Tamil by Ilango Adigal saying the offering for Four kind of devas.[58]

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See also

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Notes

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References

Шаблон:Reflist

Further reading

Шаблон:Hindudharma Шаблон:Hindu deities and texts Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ 1,0 1,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 492
  3. ↑ Encyclopaedia Britannica - Deva
  4. ↑ Encyclopedia of Ancient Deities by Charles Russell Coulter, Patricia Turner. Pg.147
  5. ↑ 5,0 5,1 5,2 George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 90, 112
  6. ↑ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102
  7. ↑ Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 59-76
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 9,2 9,3 9,4 Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 253-262
  10. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica
  11. ↑ Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 23-29
  12. ↑ Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, Шаблон:ISBN, page 67
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 13,3 Klaus Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 101-102
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  15. ↑ Dyuloka, Monier Monier-Williams, English Sanskrit Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 500
  16. ↑ Deva Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper (2015)
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  20. ↑ 20,0 20,1 Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 496
  21. ↑ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, page 2
  22. ↑ John Stratton Hawley and Donna Marie Wulff (1998), Devi: Goddesses of India, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 18-21
  23. ↑ Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 110-114
  24. ↑ Twelve Heavenly Deities (Devas) Шаблон:Webarchive Nara National Museum, Japan
  25. ↑ George Williams (2008), A Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 24-33
  26. ↑ 26,0 26,1 Bina Gupta (2011), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Routledge, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 21-25
  27. ↑ John Bowker (2014), God: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 88-96
  28. ↑ Ivan Strenski (2015), Understanding Theories of Religion: An Introduction, 2nd Edition, Wiley, Шаблон:ISBN, page 42
  29. ↑ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, page 20
  30. ↑ Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-374
  31. ↑ Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-418
  32. ↑ 32,0 32,1 Nicholas Gier (1995), Hindu Titanism, Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96
  33. ↑ FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112
  34. ↑ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 1-2; Note: Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book, see page 3 for example.;
    For original Sanskrit, see Rigveda hymns 8.25.4 and 8.96.9 Rigveda - Wikisource
  35. ↑ Mircea Eliade (1981), History of Religious Ideas, Volume 1, University of Chicago Press, Шаблон:ISBN, page 204, 199-202, 434-435
  36. ↑ 36,0 36,1 36,2 Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 52-53
  37. ↑ Hermann Oldenberg (1988), The Religion of the Veda, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 116-117
  38. ↑ Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 287-289
  39. ↑ Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 175-176
  40. ↑ 40,0 40,1 Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, page 58
  41. ↑ 41,0 41,1 Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 70-71
  42. ↑ 42,0 42,1 Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 508-509
  43. ↑ Max Muller, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.3.1 Oxford University Press, page 78 with footnote 2
  44. ↑ Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466
  45. ↑ Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 130-131
  46. ↑ 46,0 46,1 46,2 46,3 Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441
  47. ↑ 47,0 47,1 Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 610-629
  48. ↑ 48,0 48,1 Nicholas Gier (1995), Hindu Titanism, Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80
  49. ↑ 49,0 49,1 Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, Шаблон:ISBN, pages 75-78
  50. ↑ Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, Шаблон:ISBN, page 455
  51. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 3.12.21-22
  52. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 4.1.13
  53. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 6.6.24-26
  54. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 8.13.6
  55. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 6.18.11
  56. ↑ Bhagavata Purana 5.24.30
  57. ↑ 57,0 57,1 Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442
  58. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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