Английская Википедия:Dhammakaya meditation
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Dhammakaya meditation (also known as Sammā Arahaṃ meditation) is a method of Buddhist Meditation developed and taught by the Thai meditation teacher Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro (1885–1959).Шаблон:Refn In Thailand, it is known as Vijjā dhammakāya, which translates as 'knowledge of the dhamma-body'. The Dhammakaya Meditation method is popular in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia, and has been described as a revival of samatha (tranquility) meditation in Thailand.
The Dhammakaya Tradition believes the method to be the same as the original method the Buddha used to attain enlightenment, which was lost and then rediscovered by Luang Pu Sodh in the 1910s. The most important aspect of the meditation method is the focus on the center of the body, which leads to the attainment of the Dhammakāya, the Dhamma-body, found within every human being. Similar to other meditation traditions, the Dhammakaya Tradition believes the meditation technique leads to the attainment of Nirvana, and in advanced stages, can give the meditator various supernatural abilities, or abhiñña.
Dhammakaya Meditation is taught at several temples of the Tradition, and consists of a stage of samatha (tranquility) and vipassana (insight), following the structure of the Visuddhimagga, a standard fifth-century Theravāda guide about meditation. In the method, the stages are described in terms of inner bodies (Шаблон:Lang-pi), but also in terms of meditative absorptions (Шаблон:Lang-pi).
Scholars have proposed several possibilities for the origin of the method, with the Yogavacara tradition as the likely source, as well as acknowledging that Luang Pu Sodh may have independently developed it through his own psychic experiences.
Dhammakaya Meditation has been the subject of considerable discussion among Buddhists as to its authenticity and efficacy, and also has been the subject of several scientific studies.
Nomenclature
Dhammakaya Meditation is also referred to as Vijja thammakai or Vijjā dhammakāya.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The word vijjā is derived from the Vedic Sanskrit term vidya or knowledge, while dhammakāya means "Dhamma-body". Together, it connotes 'knowledge of the Dhamma-body'.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The tradition itself, as for example expressed in books of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, defines Vijjā Dhammakāya as "Clear knowledge that arises from insight through the vision and knowledge of the Dhammakaya."[1]
History
Thai 19th-century reform movement
In 19th and early 20th-century Thailand, public perception of the practice of Buddhism changed. Originally, Thai people saw meditation mostly as a personal and quite esoteric practice. In response to threats of colonial powers, the Thai kings and the reformed Dhammayut fraternity attempted to modernize Buddhism. Mahayana and Tantric practices were considered "devotional and degenerate", while the orthodox Theravada tradition as the more legitimate one with closed canonical scriptures.Шаблон:Sfn
The royal family of Thailand sought to reform Thai Buddhism with its ritualized and mystical practices, encouraging instead the direct study and adherence to the Pali canonical and commentarial texts. This was, in part, similar to the European Protestant tradition, reaching back to normative scriptures, in this case the 5th-century Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa. In this process, meditation tradition was devalued among monastics, as the study of scriptures was more valued. Thai temples in the Mahānikāya fraternity were forced to adjust to new reforms, including the meditation method used and taught.Шаблон:Sfn Education in Buddhist doctrine was standardized and centralized, and some local meditation lineages such as of Ajarn Mun gradually died out.Шаблон:Sfn
Meditation traditions responded by reforming their methods, and looking for textual support for their meditation system in the Buddhist scriptures, in an attempt to establish orthodoxy and survive. Meditation became less esoteric, as temple traditions and their local teachers adapted to this pressure for uniform orthodox meditation practice.Шаблон:Sfn
Luang Pu Sodh
According to biographies published by Dhammakaya-related temples, the principles of Dhammakaya meditation were rediscovered by Luang Pu Sodh at Wat Botbon, in Nonthaburi Province sometime between 1915Шаблон:En dash1917.Шаблон:Refn The tradition was started by Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro in the early twentieth century.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
One night, after three hours of meditating on the mantra sammā araham,Шаблон:Refn "his mind [suddenly] became still and firmly established at the very centre of his body," and he experienced "a bright and shining sphere of Dhamma at the centre of his body, followed by new spheres, each "brighter and clearer."Шаблон:Sfn According to Luang Pu Sodh, this was the true Dhamma-body, or Dhammakaya, the "spiritual essence of the Buddha and nibbana [which] exists as a literal reality within the human body,"Шаблон:Sfn what became known as the attainment of the Dhammakaya,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the eternal Buddha within all beings. The dhammakaya is Nibbāna, and Nibbāna is equated with a person's true self (as opposed to the non-self).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn
Yogavacara origins
Luang Pu Sodh's approach may have roots in the Yogavacara tradition (also known as tantric Theravāda or borān kammaṭṭhāna); not to be confused with the Yogacāra School in Mahāyāna Buddhism).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Dhammakaya meditation method managed to survive the pressures to reform Buddhism in modern Thailand.Шаблон:Sfn Its ancestry may be related to the Suk meditation system and to Wat Rajasittharam, the former residence of Шаблон:Ill (early 19th century), "the heir to the teaching of Ayutthaya meditation masters,"Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn and the temple where Luang Pu Sodh used to study the Suk system before he went on to develop Dhammakaya meditation.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
According to Mackenzie, Yogavacara ideas are the most likely influence on Dhammakaya meditation system, though this is not definitely proven.Шаблон:Sfn According to Buddhist Studies scholar Catherine Newell, "there is no doubt that Dhammakaya meditation is based upon the broader Yogavacara tradition." She presents evidence of the borrowing of Luang Pu Sodh's Dhammakaya system from Somdet Suk's system of meditation.Шаблон:Sfn She and Asian studies scholar Phibul Choompolpaisal believe a Yogavacara origin to be most likely.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn If this would be the case, the tradition's meditation method would be an exoteric (openly taught) version of what initially was an esoteric tradition.Шаблон:Sfn Thai Studies scholar Barend Jan Terwiel has argued for a connection between Dhammakaya meditation and Thai meditation practices since the Ayutthaya period (1350–1776), in which the crystal ball at the center of the body plays a key role. He bases his conclusions on depictions of Nirvana in the manuscripts of the text Traiphuum Phra Ruang. He believes that this tradition may be identified as Yogavacara.Шаблон:Sfn Choompolpaisal lists a number of similarities between Dhammakaya meditation and Yogavacara practices from 56 anonymous Ayutthaya meditation teachers. Some of these methods focus on a similar point in the body, and feature the same objects used in visualization, that is, a Buddha image and a crystal ball. The meditative experiences which follow after visualization are also similar in nature between the 56 teachers and Dhammakaya. In both, the words dhamma sphere (duangtham) and dhammakāya are used to describe some of the experiences. Finally, the Ayutthaya teachers refer to inner bodies in some of their techniques, which have similar features to some of the inner bodies in the Dhammakāya system.Шаблон:Sfn
An alternative theory suggests an origin in Tibetan or other forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Mackenzie, it is possible but unlikely that someone who knew the Tibetan meditation methods met and shared that knowledge with Luang Pu Sodh in the early 1910s.Шаблон:Sfn There are similarities between the two systems, states Mackenzie, as well as with the concepts such as chakra (tantric psycho-physical centers), "crystal sphere" and Vajra.Шаблон:Sfn Though these commonalities are widely accepted, no proof has emerged yet of the cross-fertilization of Tibetan Buddhist practices into Dhammakaya system.Шаблон:Sfn Crosby doubts the link, because of the two systems using different terminology.Шаблон:Sfn
It is also "quite possible" that Luang Pu Sodh developed the Dhammakaya meditation approach through his own "psychic experiences", in Mackenzie's words,Шаблон:Sfn or partly based on older tradition, and partly a new invention.Шаблон:Sfn
Growth and popularisation
After discovering the method of Dhammakaya meditation, Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro first taught it to others at Wat Bangpla, in Nakhon Pathom Province.Шаблон:Sfn Luang Pu Sodh was given his first position as abbot at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen, a temple that has been associated with Dhammakaya meditation ever since.
In 1931, Luang Pu Sodh set up what he called a 'meditation workshop' (Шаблон:Lang-th) with meditation practitioners meditating in six-hour shifts throughout the day.Шаблон:Sfn According to a textbook of one temple, the meditation workshop was reserved for gifted practitioners able to practice Dhammakaya meditation on a higher level.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The purpose of the workshop was to use meditation to study certain subjects, which included understanding the nature of the world and the universe, "to learn the truth about the worlds and the galaxies".Шаблон:Sfn
Since Luang Pu Sodh's death in 1959, Dhammakaya meditation has been taught by his students at several major temples, including Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen, Wat Phra Dhammakaya in Pathum Thani, Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram in Damnoen Saduak District, Ratchaburi Province, and Wat Rajorasaram in Bang Khun Thian District, Bangkok, as well as in branch centers of these temples across and outside of Thailand.[2]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Of these, Wat Phra Dhammakaya and Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram have published instruction books on Dhammakaya meditation in English. Both also offer training retreats for the public.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The method has become very popular in Thailand and other parts of Southeast Asia,Шаблон:Sfn and has been described as a revival of samatha (tranquility) meditation in Thailand.Шаблон:Sfn
Method
Dhammakaya meditation includes three techniques, namely concentration on breath, repetitive chanting of the mantra samma araham, and concentrating upon a bright object.Шаблон:Sfn The types of practices, such as visualization or use of a mantra, are not unique to Dhammakaya meditation,Шаблон:Sfn but its specific methods for practice are.Шаблон:Sfn
Dhammakaya meditation has both samatha and vipassana stages, like other Buddhist traditions.Шаблон:Sfn The process of concentration in Dhammakaya meditation correlates with the description of samatha meditation in the Visuddhimagga, specifically kasina meditation.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Essential in Dhammakaya meditation is the "center of the body," which Luang Pu Sodh describes as being at a point two finger widths above the navel of each person.Шаблон:Sfn The center of the body has also been described as the "end of the breath", the point in the abdomen where the breath goes back and forth.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to the Dhammakaya tradition, the mind can only attain a higher level of insight through this center and it is where the Dhammakaya, the Dhamma-body, is located. It has the shape of a Buddha sitting within oneself.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This center is also believed to play a fundamental role in the birth and death of an individual.Шаблон:Sfn
The samatha stage
As is common with traditional samatha practice, the first step of Dhammakaya meditation at the samatha level is to overcome mental hindrances to concentration.Шаблон:Sfn This enables the meditator to focus and access the meditative center.Шаблон:Sfn
Focusing on the center
There are several techniques taught by the Dhammakaya Tradition to help focus the attention on the center of the body.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Practitioners visualize a mental image at the center of the body–characteristically, a crystal ball or a crystal clear Buddha image.Шаблон:Sfn The use of crystal ball as an aid to meditation in the Dhammakaya practice has been compared with meditation on a bright object in the Visuddhimagga,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and the crystal ball has become a sacred symbol of the meditation tradition.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Buddhist studies scholar Potprecha Cholvijarn, other objects to maintain focus at the center can also be used. For instance, Wat Phra Dhammakaya has taught people in the Solomon Islands to visualize a coconut and has taught Muslims to visualize religious symbols such as a crescent moon to maintain focus at the center.Шаблон:Sfn The goal of this practice, states Scott, is described as the attainment of samadhi or one-pointedness of mind, in which several spheres and then various inner bodies are revealed, ultimately revealing "the true self, the true mind, the Dhammakaya."Шаблон:Sfn
Practitioners typically repeat the samma araham mantra,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn then visualize a mental image of the bright crystal or light, and then move the mental image inwards through seven bases of the mind, that is:Шаблон:Sfn
- the nostril (right for men, left for women),
- the bridge of the nose (right for men, left for women),
- the center of the head,
- the roof of the mouth,
- the center of the throat,
- the middle of the stomach at the level of the navel and
- two finger-breadths above the previous point, where they keep their attention.
In this context, the center of the body is often called the "seventh or final base",Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and is called the mind's final resting place.Шаблон:Sfn The meditator continues to repeat the mantra while shifting the focus to the sphere's center and layers of concentric spheres therein.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
This use of psycho-physical centers in the Dhammakaya meditation is similar to the chakras in the Tibetan Buddhist tantra practice, states Mackenzie.Шаблон:Sfn However, the detailed symbolism found in the Tibetan tradition is not found in the Dhammakaya tradition.Шаблон:Sfn In the tradition, the first six bases facilitate visualization, but are not required, as advanced meditators can directly visualize the seventh base.Шаблон:Sfn
After the meditator has visualized the movement of a crystal ball through the bases until it rests on the seventh final base, the practitioner envisions the body as devoid of organs, blood and everything else except the crystal ball.Шаблон:Sfn
Spheres
When the mind is concentrated at the center of the body, the pathama-magga, or dhamma sphere (duangtham), may be seen by a wholesome person, but is not seen by an unwholesome person or those who lack sufficient concentration powers, according to Dhammakaya teachings.Шаблон:Sfn The first sighting of this "bright crystal sphere" is considered as an important first step.Шаблон:Sfn The first stage of this path Luang Pu Sodh simply called the 'beginning of the path' (Шаблон:Lang-th).Шаблон:Sfn The meditation teachers state that with sufficient skill, or if there is an adequate store of merit, the meditator sees this path as a "glowing sphere".Шаблон:Sfn According to Tanabe, this state is also described as the arising of bright light at the center of the body.Шаблон:Sfn According to Skilton and Choompolpaisal, this practice sometimes leads to the pīti state, or the temporary experience of goosebumps or other physical responses.Шаблон:Sfn
From this arises a brighter sphere, the sila sphere, followed by an even brighter and more refined sphere of samadhi (mental concentration). According to Jayamaṅggalo, the former abbot of Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram, this is the first stage of absorption, from which insight meditation can be started.Шаблон:Sfn Next comes the pañña (wisdom, insight) sphere, and then the sphere of liberation (vimutti). Finally, the "sphere of knowledge and vision of liberation" (vimutti-ñanadassana) arises – a term normally used for Arahatship, according to the Dhammakaya meditation teachings.Шаблон:Sfn
Inner bodies
When the practitioner concentrates further on the vimutti-ñanadassana, a series of eight inner bodies arise from this sphere, which are successively more subtle, and come in pairs, starting with "a crude human form" (panita-manussakaya).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Each of these bodies is preceded by several spheres of light.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The eight inner bodies begin in a form identical to the meditator, but are more refined.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After the crude human body, there arises the "refined human body" and then the "crude celestial body" and the "refined celestial body". After the meditator attains the refined celestial body, this gives way to the "crude form Brahma body". This is followed by "refined form Brahma body", "crude formless Brahma body" and "refined formless Brahma body". Once again, like previous inner bodies, these bodies have a normal and refined form.Шаблон:Sfn
According to Mackenzie, "[t]his series of [four] bodies seems to broadly correspond to the meditative development up to the four jhanas", through them, and then the four formless meditation attainments.Шаблон:Sfn The final four of these inner pairs are called the Dhammakayas and are equated with the four stages of enlightenment, leading to the final stage of enlightenment (arahant).Шаблон:Sfn In between is the 'change-of-lineage' (Шаблон:Lang-pi) intermediary Dhammakaya state.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn According to Newell, quoting Jayamaṅggalo, this state is the ninth inner body and is characterized by "the lap width, height and sphere diameter [of] 9 meters."Шаблон:Sfn The size of the Dhammakaya bodies increase, as the meditator progresses through these intermediate stages, from a height and lap-width of 9 meters or more to 40 meters or more.Шаблон:Sfn According to Harvey, the visualized inner bodies in Dhammakaya teachings are said to appear like Buddha-images,Шаблон:Refn followed by bodies of Noble persons, finally that of an arahant's radiant Dhammakaya form within allowing the experience of Nirvana.Шаблон:Sfn
| Meditation state (kāya)Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn | English translationШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn | Equated withШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn |
|---|---|---|
| Manussakāya | Crude human body | The meditator's physical body |
| Panīta-manussakāya | Refined human body | First absorption (jhāna) |
| Dibbakāya | Crude celestial body | Second absorption (jhāna) |
| Panīta-dibbakāya | Refined celestial body | Second absorption (jhāna) |
| Rūpabrahmakāya | Crude form Brahma body | Third absorption (jhāna) |
| Panīta-rūpabrahmakāya | Refined form Brahma Body | Third absorption (jhāna) |
| Arūpabrahmakāya | Crude formless Brahma body | Fourth absorption (jhāna) |
| Panīta-arūpabrahmakāya | Refined Formless Brahma Body | Fourth absorption (jhāna) |
| Dhammakāya-gotrabhū (crude) | The Dhamma-body of crude Change-of-lineage | Traditional term for being on the brink of the first stage of enlightenment |
| Dhammakāya-gotrabhū (refined) | The Dhamma-body of refined Change-of-lineage | Traditional term for being on the brink of the first stage of enlightenment |
| Dhammakāya-sotāpatti-magga (crude) | The Dhamma-body of crude Stream-enterer | The path of Stream-enterer |
| Dhammakāya-sotāpatti-phala (refined) | The Dhamma-body of refined Stream-enterer | The fruit of Stream-enterer |
| Dhammakāya-sakadāgāmi-magga (crude) | The Dhamma-body of crude Once-returner | The path of Once-returner |
| Dhammakāya-sakadāgāmi-phala (refined) | The Dhamma-body of refined Once-returner | The fruit of Once-returner |
| Dhammakāya-anāgāmi-magga (crude) | The Dhamma-body of crude Non-returner | The path of Non-returner |
| Dhammakāya-anāgāmi-phala (refined) | The Dhamma-body of refined Non-returner | The fruit of Non-returner |
| Dhammakāya-arahatta-magga (crude) | The Dhamma-body of the crude Arahant | The path of Arahant, anupādisesa-nibbāna (Nirvana) |
| Dhammakāya-arahatta-phala (refined) | The Dhamma-body of the refined Arahant | The fruit of Arahant, anupādisesa-nibbāna (Nirvana) |
The vipassana stage
Dhammakaya meditation begins with a samatha (concentration) method with a crystal sphere as an aid to acquiring the Dhammakaya, which is believed to exist inside everybody.Шаблон:Sfn Although some Thai scholars and meditation traditions have criticized Dhammakaya meditation as being a samatha only method, Cholvijarn states that Luang Pu Sodh did emphasize a vipassana (insight) stage, which is done by contemplating the three marks of existence of the lower mundane inner bodies.Шаблон:Sfn The vipassana stage is where the meditator can gain insights into the truth through observation of their own physical and mental processes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn It is believed they can understand birth, death and suffering at a deeper level, when they see the literal essence of these phenomena through meditative attainment.Шаблон:Sfn The higher knowledge and transcendental wisdom in the vipassana stage is "beyond the attainment of Dhammakaya" of the samatha stage.Шаблон:Sfn
According to Scott, the Dhammakaya method tends to emphasize aspects of samatha meditation, rather than vipassana meditation.Шаблон:Sfn The Dhammakaya meditation method contrasts with the other Buddhist traditions where samatha stage is considered a preliminary step to develop "one-pointedness of mind" followed by the vipassana stage that "alone brings the meditator to full and final release (Nibbāna) in the Buddhist view".Шаблон:Sfn
The vipassana tradition of Wat Mahathat claims that Luang Pu Sodh allegedly confessed to officials at Wat Mahathat that he had been wrong to emphasize Dhammakaya meditation as Wat Mahathat's vipassana was the best method.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Dhammakaya tradition rejects this claim, stating that Luang Pu Sodh only learned Wat Mahathat's method as a gesture of goodwill and never made such a confession.Шаблон:Sfn Cholvijarn points to bhikkhuni Voramai Kabilsingh, who studied and taught both methods, as being an objective source of clarity to this controversy. According to her autobiographical accounts, bhikkhuni Voramai studied Dhammakaya meditation with Luang Pu Sodh and attained dhammakaya. Afterwards she went on to study Wat Mahathat's method. After completing the course, she returned to Wat Paknam and told Luang Pu Sodh she only used her outer human body to meditate with Wat Mahathat's method, in order to keep her dhammakaya during the training. Luang Pu Sodh then told her to always keep her dhammakaya.Шаблон:Sfn
In comparing Dhammakaya meditation with other methods she practiced, bhikkhuni Voramai states that there are four types of arahants: one who has the discriminations, one who has the higher knowledges, one who has the threefold knowledges, and one who has "dry insight", meaning they are enlightened but have none of the knowledges of the first three.Шаблон:Sfn According to bhikkhuni Voramai, Dhammakaya meditation and the Buddho method of meditation she learned with Ajahn Lee allows one to become the first three arahants, while the vipassana method taught at Wat Mahathat allows one to become enlightened quickly, but only as a "dry insight" arahant. She goes on to say that this is because the first two methods start with samatha and end in vipassana, which is required for the first three types.Шаблон:Sfn Cholvijarn compares this to teachings of Ajahn Lee, who gives a similar description of samatha and vipassana in relation to enlightenment.Шаблон:Sfn
Culmination
The practitioner can accomplish a purification of the mind until an end of this can be reached, that is Nirvana.Шаблон:Sfn According to Peter Harvey, in the Dhammakaya tradition's teachings, "Nirvana is controversially seen as one's true 'Self'", with the traditional teaching of "non-Self" (Шаблон:Lang-pi) interpreted as "letting go of what is not Self, and finding what truly is Self".Шаблон:Sfn
In Dhammakaya meditation, a distinction is made between "seeing the Dhammakāya" and "being the Dhammakāya". Only the latter is equated with having attained the stages of enlightenment at a stable level. It is believed that the further practitioners progress through the successive stages of the practice, the more their mind will become more pure and refined.Шаблон:Sfn According to Newell, as the meditator attains the higher-levels of Dhammakaya inner bodies, he reaches the final state of dhammakaya-arahatta where he may be enlightened or unenlightened. It is the enlightened who become Arahant, while the unenlightened revert to the prior state (anupadisesa nibbana), in the Dhammakaya meditation system. Success in the higher-levels of meditation is claimed to create supranormal powers such as the ability to "visit [Buddhist] heavens and hells to see the fate the deceased family members" and "visit nibbana (nirvana) to make offerings to the Buddha", states Newell.Шаблон:Sfn According to Scott, the samatha stage of Dhammakaya includes "the fruits of supranormal powers (iddhi) and knowledge (abhiñña)", a feature that is common in other modernist interpretations of Buddhism.Шаблон:Sfn
The attainment of the Dhammakaya (or Dhammakayas) is described by many practitioners as the state where there is the cessation of the defilements in the mind, or, in positive terms, as the true, ultimate, permanent happiness (Pali: nibbanam paramam sukham).Шаблон:Sfn According to Scott, "more often than not, it is the understanding of Nirvana as supreme happiness that is underscored in dhammakāya practice, rather than its traditional rendering as the cessation of greed, hatred and delusion", though at times these two descriptions are combined. This positive description of Nirvana as a state of supreme happiness may have contributed to the popularity of Wat Phra Dhammakaya to new members, states Scott.Шаблон:Sfn This view of Nirvana in the Dhammakaya meditation system is in contrast to the orthodox Theravada via negativa description of Nirvana being "not Samsāra".Шаблон:Sfn
The Dhammakaya is considered the "purest element" and the Buddha nature which is permanent and essential.Шаблон:Sfn This purest element has the shape of a luminous Buddha figure sitting within oneself.Шаблон:Sfn According to Scott, the full realization of the Dhammakaya ontology has been described in the Dhammakaya tradition as Nirvana.Шаблон:Sfn According to Newell, Dhammakaya is sometimes described in the Dhammakaya tradition as a state reached more easily and by more meditators than the state of Nirvana. A Wat Luang Pho Sodh Dhammakayaram publication states in reference to their retreat programs, quotes Newell, "Past results indicate that half of [retreat] participants can transcend to Dhammakaya and a quarter can reach visiting Nirvana." Wat Luang Pho Sodh Dhammakayaram has claimed their meditation retreats can lead to the quick attainment of Nirvana, with testimonials claiming 'visiting nirvana within two weeks', or in one case reaching Nirvana in 'just one week'."Шаблон:Sfn
Nirvana is described by the Dhammakaya tradition as a subtle sphere (Шаблон:Lang-pi).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The "Nirvana sphere" is believed by Dhammakaya practitioners to appear as a subtle physical realm where "enlightened beings eternally exist as individuals with self-awareness", states Harvey, and is accessible by arahants from within their own bodies.Шаблон:Sfn In some Dhammakaya tradition lineages, practitioners ritually offer food to these enlightened beings in Nirvana.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Cholvijarn argues that Dhammakaya's teaching of Nirvana was influenced by two of Luang Pu Sodh's early meditation teachers, who taught a similar understanding of Nirvana.Шаблон:Sfn Similar views were also taught by the 19th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand and are also common in the Thai Forest Tradition founded by Ajahn Mun, with several of Ajahn Mun's esteemed students giving similar descriptions of Nirvana, states Cholvijarn.Шаблон:Sfn Such views can be found in borān kammaṭṭhana texts as well.Шаблон:Sfn
Differences between temples
The various Dhammakaya temples have different expectations and emphasis, states Newell.Шаблон:Sfn The meditation system at Wat Paknam is embedded within religious ceremonies; Wat Phra Dhammakaya and Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram use meditation retreats; Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram emphasizes higher stages of absorption to attain Dhammakaya in their publications, while Wat Phra Dhammakaya emphasizes developing calm and concentration.Шаблон:Sfn Some Dhammakaya temples are more esoteric about the method than others. For instance, according to Mackenzie, Wat Paknam and Wat Phra Dhammakaya monks do not openly discuss their meditation practice related to defeating Māra.Шаблон:Sfn Wat Luang Phor Sodh Dhammakayaram openly encourages meditation at higher levels, while Wat Phra Dhammakaya openly focuses on the basic level, as well as adapts simplified versions of the technique according to age and culture, teaching higher levels of meditation only to selected individuals.Шаблон:Sfn
Scriptural validation
Temples of the tradition refer mostly to the Mahasatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, the Ānāpānasati Sutta and the Visuddhimagga for Dhammakaya meditation's theoretical foundations.Шаблон:Refn According to Cholvijarn, Luang Pu Sodh made the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta and the four satipaṭṭhānas central to the Dhammakaya meditation system, being one of the first meditation masters of his time to do so.Шаблон:Sfn According to Mackenzie, Luang Pu Sodh interpreted a phrase which is normally interpreted as 'contemplating the body as a body' as contemplating the body in the body.Шаблон:Sfn The Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta contains a series of expressions for contemplating the body as body, feelings as feelings, etc. but is literally translated from Pali as "in" rather than "as". According to Cholvijarn, Luang Pu Sodh considered the phrase as having several meanings based on the individual person's level of understanding. Luang Pu Sodh did understand the phrase "body in body" as meaning being mindful of the body, but also understood it as extending the mindfulness to the inner bodies for practitioners who could see them with meditative attainments, a literal interpretation of "in".Шаблон:Sfn Luang Pu Sodh's experience is also understood in the biographies as a deeper meaning to the Middle Way, a teaching described in the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, an early Buddhist discourse.Шаблон:Sfn
With regard to the Ānāpānasati Sutta, Cholvijarn points to a sermon of Luang Pu Sodh that described how the practice of mindfulness of the breath calms the body, speech and mind in regards to the four satipaṭṭhānas.Шаблон:Sfn Jayamaṅggalo relates Dhammakaya meditation's focus on the center of the body to the practice of ānāpānasati in accordance with the Visuddhimagga. The Visuddhimagga instructs meditators to observe the passing of the breath at one fixed point, rather than to follow the breath in and out, which would agitate the mind. According to Jayamaṅggalo, Dhammakaya meditation follows these instructions by focusing at a point near the end of the breath, where the in and out breaths are separated in the abdomen.Шаблон:Sfn Dhammakaya meditation's traditional use of a crystal ball to maintain focus at the center has also been compared to the use of a bright object as described in the Visuddhimagga.Шаблон:Refn The practice of visualizing an object at the end of the breath in the abdomen has been found in some ancient Thai meditation manuals as well, states Cholvijarn.Шаблон:Sfn
Reception
The Dhammakaya tradition believes Dhammakaya meditation was the method through which the Buddha became enlightened, and that knowledge of the method was lost five hundred years after the Buddha's death, but was rediscovered by Luang Pu Sodh in the 1910s.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Suwanna Satha-Anand, the tradition believes that meditation and the attainment of the dhammakaya is the only way to Nirvana.[3]
Method
As with other meditation methods emphasizing samatha, opponents writing from a modernist standpoint have criticized the method. These critics point at the emphasis on pleasant feelings as opposed to insight. They argue against the mystical dimension of meditation practice, saying that bliss in meditation is a hindrance to insight.Шаблон:Sfn According to Scott, in the time of Luang Pu Sodh the method was criticized by some for being extra-canonical,Шаблон:Sfn although Asian studies scholar Edwin Zehner states there was no widespread criticism.Шаблон:Sfn Meditation in large groups, as is common in the activities of Wat Phra Dhammakaya, contrasts with the emphasis of most Thai temples on meditation in solitude. The temple stresses the importance of meditating as a group to counterbalance the negativity in the world.Шаблон:Sfn
Discussion within the Thai monastic community led to an inspection at Wat Paknam, but no fault could be found in Luang Pu Sodh's method.Шаблон:Sfn Religion scholar Donald Swearer calls the meditation method "a unique method of meditation which involves a visualization technique not unlike that associated with certain yogic or tantric forms of meditation, and is easily taught to large groups of people".Шаблон:Sfn Mackenzie concludes that the Dhammakaya meditation method is within the standards of Thai Buddhism, and that criticism of the method stems largely from people who disapprove of Wat Phra Dhammakaya's high-profile status and fundraising practices, rather than a genuine disagreement with the meditation method itself.Шаблон:Sfn
Interpretation
The interpretations of the true self by the Dhammakaya tradition have been criticized by some Thai Buddhist scholars such as Phra Payutto, and have led to considerable debate in Thailand.Шаблон:Sfn The bulk of Thai Theravada Buddhism rejects the true-self teaching of Dhammakaya, and insists upon absolute non-self as the Buddha's real teaching.Шаблон:Sfn Proponents of the tradition cite several Pāli texts, such as one text stating that Nirvana is true happiness, and argue that the true self is a logical conclusion that follows from these texts. Other proponents feel that the problem is a matter of practice more than debate.Шаблон:Sfn[4] The late abbot of Wat Luang Por Sodh Dhammakayaram, Luang Por Sermchai, argues it tends to be scholars who hold the view of absolute non-self, whereas "several distinguished forest hermit monks" such as Luang Pu Sodh, Ajahn Mun and Ajahn Maha Bua hold Nirvana as true self, because they have "confirmed the existence of a Higher or Real Self (attā)" by their own realizations.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The word dhammakāya in its orthodox sense is commonly understood as a figurative term, meaning the "body" or the sum of the Buddha's teachings.[5]Шаблон:Sfn The idea of a body of spiritual attainment can be found in the early Pali scriptures, though, but this is described as a "body accomplished by the mind" (Шаблон:Lang-pi) and not directly connected with the attainment of Nirvana. Buddhist studies scholar Chanida Jantrasrisalai, however, argues that the term was originally more connected with the process of enlightenment than the way it later came to be interpreted. Jantrasrisalai states that "in all references to dhammakāya in early Buddhist usage, it is apparent that dhammakāya is linked always with the process of enlightenment in one way or another. Its relation with the Buddhist noble ones of all types is evident in the early Buddhist texts. That is to say, dhammakāya is not exclusive to the Buddha. It appears also that the term's usage in the sense of teaching is a later schema rather than being the early Buddhist common notions as generally understood."[6]
The concept of the Dharmakāya has been much further developed in Mahāyāna Buddhism,Шаблон:Sfn and the interpretations of the Dhammakaya tradition with regard to true self have been compared with Mahāyāna ideas like the Buddha Nature,Шаблон:Sfn but such influence has been rejected by the tradition itself.Шаблон:Sfn
Influence
Dhammakaya meditation has also influenced several meditation teachers outside of the Dhammakaya tradition. Cholvijarn points to Dhammakaya meditation as influencing several notable teachers in Thailand such as Luang Pho Ruesi Lingdam, bhikkhuni Voramai Kabilsingh, as well as possibly Phra Ariyakhunathan.Шаблон:Sfn
Luang Pho Ruesi Lingdam, a highly respected figure in Thailand, studied meditation under Luang Pu Sodh and several well known meditation masters in the 1930s. After learning Dhammakaya meditation at Wat Paknam, he incorporated it into his practice and eventually became the abbot of Wat Tha Sung, which later became a major meditation temple for the region. Luang Pho Ruesi taught several meditation techniques, but his most popular was the Manomayiddhi method, which Cholvijarn notes has several similarities with Dhammakaya meditation.Шаблон:Sfn Luang Pho Ruesi has also admitted that Luang Pu Sodh influenced his view of Nirvana, which he used to believe was void. However, after practicing Dhammakaya and other forms of meditation, he later changed his view to agree with Luang Pu Sodh's.Шаблон:Sfn
Bhikkhuni Voramai Kabilsingh, the founder of the Songdhammakalyani Monastery and an early figure in the bhikkhuni ordination movement in Thailand, credits Dhammakaya meditation with sparking her interest in Buddhist practice and meditation.Шаблон:Sfn According to her biography, Bhikkhuni Voramai was suffering from uterine fibroid as a layperson and prior to a surgery for their removal, was told by a student of Luang Pu Sodh that the fibroid had been removed via meditation. To her and the surgeon's surprise, the fibroid was found to be gone. The incident led her to the study of Dhammakaya meditation at Wat Paknam as well as several other meditation schools and her eventual ordination.Шаблон:Sfn According to Cholvijarn, Bhikkhuni Voramai taught Dhammakaya meditation along with several other meditation methods until her death, as well as taught the concepts of dhammakaya and Nirvana similarly to Luang Pu Sodh.Шаблон:Sfn As of 2008, Dhammakaya meditation is still taught as one of the meditation methods to the bhikkhuni at Songdhammakalyani Monastery.Шаблон:Sfn
Phra Ariyakhunathan, a well known meditation master from the Thai Forest Tradition who was responsible for the first biography of lineage founder Ajahn Mun, also may have been influenced by Luang Pu Sodh.Шаблон:Sfn Although Phra Ariyakhunathan does not acknowledge an influence, Cholvijarn notes that in 1950, Phra Ariyakhunathan, then a high ranking Dhammayuttika administrative monk, was sent to investigate the conduct of Luang Pu Sodh as his reputation in Thailand grew. After the meeting, Phra Ariyakhunathan returned with a positive report and then published a book describing the concept of dhammakaya in the same way as Luang Pu Sodh.Шаблон:Sfn According to Cholvijarn, his understanding of dhammakaya likely came from discussions with meditation masters such as Luang Pu Sodh and Ajahn Mun, although Cholvijarn states that he also may have gotten these ideas from borān kammaṭṭhāna texts.Шаблон:Sfn
Effects
Practitioners of the method state the method is capable of changing people for the better, and has positive effects in their daily life.Шаблон:Sfn Dhammakaya meditation has been promoted as a fast meditation method for professionals with little time, easy enough to be learned by children, one able to "effect radical changes in one's life if practised regularly".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
According to Mackenzie, Dhammakaya meditation is alleged to "increase the ability of the meditator to achieve goals, gain insight into the true nature of things", as well as develop "a variety of psychic and healing powers".Шаблон:Sfn Such claims are found in other meditation traditions as well, states Mackenzie.Шаблон:Sfn
Dhammakaya meditation is a form of spiritual practice that "fits well with a busy, consumer lifestyle". While the method is not simpler than other methods, states Mackenzie, its appeal is that its benefits seem to be more readily experienced by its adherents than more orthodox models.Шаблон:Sfn According to Mackenzie, Dhammakaya meditation practice includes both the ordinary level and the high-level meditation. The claimed benefits of the low-level meditation include "spiritual purification, wisdom and success", while high-level meditation is alleged to bring forth various special knowledge and powers.Шаблон:Sfn
Supranormal knowledge and powers
According to Newell, Dhammakaya meditation at the higher levels is believed by its adherents to bring forth abhiñña, or mental powers. Through such powers, states Newell, practitioners believe they can see different realms of the cosmos described in the Buddhist cosmology.Шаблон:Sfn The Dhammakaya meditation technique is claimed in its advanced stages to allow the meditator to visit alternate planes of existence, wherein one can affect current circumstances.Шаблон:Sfn According to Thai Studies scholar Jeffrey Bowers, high-level meditation is believed to yield various supernatural abilities such as enabling "one to visit one's own past lives, or the lives of others, discover where someone has been reborn and know the reasons why the person was reborn there, cure oneself or others of any disease, extrasensory perception, mind control and similar accomplishments".Шаблон:Sfn Mackenzie describes these abilities as being in line with the psychic powers (Pali: iddhi) gained through meditation detailed in the Pali Canon.Шаблон:Sfn
Examples include stories known in Thailand of Luang Pu Sodh performing "miraculous healings" and developing various supernatural powers "such as the ability to read minds and to levitate".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These alleged abilities of Luang Pu Sodh are believed even by Thais who are not his followers.Шаблон:Sfn According to Mackenzie, Wat Paknam was a popular bomb shelter for people in the surrounding areas in World War II due to stories of Luang Pu Sodh's abilities, and Thai news reports include multiple sightings of mae chi (nuns) from the temple levitating and intercepting bombs during the Allied bombings of Bangkok.Шаблон:Sfn[7] According to Dhammakaya publications, Luang Pu Sodh realized that the Allies were planning to drop an atom bomb on Bangkok during World War II due to the Japanese occupation of Thailand. He and his advanced students are alleged to have used Dhammakaya meditation to change the mind of the Allies and prevent the strike.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn According to Newell, many Thais try accessing the alleged powers of Dhammakaya meditation indirectly through amulets. Like many temples, Wat Paknam issued amulets to fund Buddhist projects when Luang Pu Sodh was abbot. These amulets eventually gained a reputation for being particularly powerful and are highly prized in Thailand for this reason.Шаблон:Sfn
Practitioners also believe that Dhammakaya meditation can be used to extinguish the negative forces in the cosmos (Māra),Шаблон:Sfn which has strongly affected the attitudes of practitioners at Dhammakaya tradition temples, who therefore hold that Dhammakaya meditation is not only important for the individual, but also for the Шаблон:Em at large.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[8] Such powers are believed to be able to be used for the benefit of society at large.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Group meditation is believed by the Dhammakaya practitioners to be more powerful in defeating Māra.Шаблон:Sfn The links to the supernatural world, and the tradition's leadership skills to navigate it, are also the basis for the ritual offering of food to the Buddha in nirvana, on the first Sunday of every month.Шаблон:Sfn
Scientific study
Sudsuang, Chentanez and Veluvan (1990), studying 52 males practicing Dhammakaya meditation versus a control group of 30 males who did not practice meditation, concluded that Dhammakaya meditation reduced serum cortisol level, blood pressure, pulse rate, vital capacity, tidal volume, maximal voluntary ventilation and reaction time.Шаблон:Sfn On a psychological level, people who regularly practiced Dhammakaya meditation were found to score high on the ISFJ personality type of the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator, which is defined within that scale as originality and a drive for implementing ideas and achieving goals.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
Notes
Citations
References
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External links
- Very brief introduction to Dhammakaya meditation Шаблон:Webarchive
- E-book with the principles of practice
- Youtube video list teaching Dhammakaya method in steps
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