Английская Википедия:Ebla

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Ebla (Sumerian: Шаблон:Cuneiform eb₂-la,[1] Шаблон:Lang-ar, modern: Шаблон:Lang, Tell Mardikh) was one of the earliest kingdoms in Syria. Its remains constitute a tell located about Шаблон:Convert southwest of Aleppo near the village of Mardikh. Ebla was an important center throughout the Шаблон:Nowrap and in the first half of the Шаблон:Nowrap Its discovery proved the Levant was a center of ancient, centralized civilization equal to Egypt and Mesopotamia and ruled out the view that the latter two were the only important centers in the Near East during the Early Bronze Age. The first Eblaite kingdom has been described as the first recorded world power.

Starting as a small settlement in the Early Bronze Age (Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc), Ebla developed into a trading empire and later into an expansionist power that imposed its hegemony over much of northern and eastern Syria. Ebla was destroyed during the Шаблон:Nowrap It was then rebuilt and was mentioned in the records of the Third Dynasty of Ur. The second Ebla was a continuation of the first, ruled by a new royal dynasty. It was destroyed at the end of the Шаблон:Nowrap which paved the way for the Amorite tribes to settle in the city, forming the third Ebla. The third kingdom also flourished as a trade center; it became a subject and an ally of Yamhad (modern-day Aleppo) until its final destruction by the Hittite king Шаблон:Nowrap in Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc.

Ebla maintained its prosperity through a vast trading network. Artifacts from Sumer, Cyprus, Egypt and as far as Afghanistan were recovered from the city's palaces. The kingdom had its own language, Eblaite, and the political organization of Ebla had features different from the Sumerian model. Women enjoyed a special status, and the queen had major influence in the state and religious affairs. The pantheon of gods was mainly north Semitic and included deities exclusive to Ebla. The city was excavated from 1964 and became famous for the Ebla tablets, an archive of about 20,000 cuneiform tablets found there, dated to around 2350 Шаблон:Sc.[note 1] Written in both Sumerian and Eblaite and using the cuneiform, the archive has allowed a better understanding of the Sumerian language and provided important information over the political organization and social customs of the mid-3rd millennium Шаблон:Sc's Levant.

History

A possible meaning of the word "Ebla" is "white rock", referring to the limestone outcrop on which the city was built.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ebla was first settled around 3500 Шаблон:Sc;Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn its growth was supported by many satellite agricultural settlements.Шаблон:Sfn The city benefited from its role as an entrepôt of growing international trade, which probably began with an increased demand for wool in Sumer.Шаблон:Sfn Archaeologists designate this early habitation period "Mardikh I"; it ended around 3000 Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:Sfn Mardikh I is followed by the first and second kingdoms era between about 3000 and 2000 Шаблон:Sc, designated "Mardikh II".Шаблон:Sfn I. J. Gelb considered Ebla as part of the Kish civilization, which was a cultural entity of East Semitic-speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to the western Levant.Шаблон:Sfn

First kingdom

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During the first kingdom period between about 3000 and 2300 Шаблон:Sc, Ebla was the most prominent kingdom among the Syrian states, especially during the second half of the 3rd millennium Шаблон:Sc, which is known as "the age of the archives" after the Ebla tablets.Шаблон:Sfn

Early period

The early period between 3000 and 2400 Шаблон:Sc is designated "Mardikh IIA".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn General knowledge about the city's history prior to the written archives is obtained through excavations.Шаблон:Sfn The first stages of Mardikh IIA is identified with building "CC",Шаблон:Sfn and structures that form a part of building "G2",Шаблон:Sfn which was apparently a royal palace built Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Toward the end of this period, a hundred years' war with Mari started.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mari gained the upper hand through the actions of its king Saʿumu, who conquered many of Ebla's cities.Шаблон:Sfn In the mid-25th century Шаблон:Sc, king Kun-Damu defeated Mari, but the state's power declined following his reign.[note 2]Шаблон:Sfn

Archive period

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Royal palace "G"

The archive period, which is designated "Mardikh IIB1", lasted from Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc until Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:Sfn The end of the period is known as the "first destruction",Шаблон:Sfn mainly referring to the destruction of the royal palace (called palace "G" and built over the earlier "G2"),Шаблон:Sfn and much of the acropolis.Шаблон:Sfn During the archive period, Ebla had political and military dominance over the other Syrian city-states of northern and eastern Syria, which are mentioned in the archives.Шаблон:Sfn Most of the tablets, which date from that period, are about economic matters but also include royal letters and diplomatic documents.Шаблон:Sfn

The written archives do not date from before Igrish-Halam's reign,Шаблон:Sfn which saw Ebla paying tribute to Mari,Шаблон:Sfn and an extensive invasion of Eblaite cities in the middle Euphrates region led by the Mariote king Iblul-Il.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ebla recovered under King Irkab-Damu in about 2340 Шаблон:Sc; becoming prosperous and launching a successful counter-offensive against Mari.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Irkab-Damu concluded a peace and trading treaty with Abarsal;[note 3]Шаблон:Sfn it is one of the earliest-recorded treaties in history.Шаблон:Sfn

At its greatest extent, Ebla controlled an area roughly half the size of modern Syria,Шаблон:Sfn from Ursa'um in the north,Шаблон:Sfn to the area around Damascus in the south,Шаблон:Sfn and from Phoenicia and the coastal mountains in the west,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn to Haddu in the east.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Large parts of the kingdom were under the direct control of the king and were administered by governors; the rest consisted of vassal kingdoms.Шаблон:Sfn One of the most important of these vassals was Armi,Шаблон:Sfn which is the city most often mentioned in the Ebla tablets.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla had more than sixty vassal kingdoms and city-states,Шаблон:Sfn including Hazuwan, Burman, Emar, Halabitu and Salbatu.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The vizier was the king's chief official.Шаблон:Sfn The holder of the office possessed great authority; the most powerful vizier was Ibrium, who campaigned against Abarsal during the term of his predecessor Arrukum.Шаблон:Sfn Ibrium held office for 18 years with warfare occurring in all but one year.[2] During the reign of Isar-Damu, Ebla continued the war against Mari, which defeated Ebla's ally Nagar, blocking trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla conducted regular military campaigns against rebellious vassals,Шаблон:Sfn including several attacks on Armi,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and a campaign against the southern region of Ib'al – close to Qatna.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In order to settle the war with Mari, Isar-Damu allied with Nagar and Kish. Some scholars have suggested that the Kish in question was not the Mesopotamian city but rather a town near Nagar in the Khabur area.[3]Шаблон:Sfn The campaign was headed by the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish, who led the combined armies to victory in a battle near Terqa.Шаблон:Sfn The alliance also attacked Armi and occupied it, leaving Ibbi-Sipish's son Enzi-Malik as governor.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla suffered its first destruction a few years after the campaign,Шаблон:Sfn probably following Isar-Damu's death.Шаблон:Sfn

First destruction of Ebla

The first destruction occurred Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc; palace "G" was burned, baking the clay tablets of the royal archives and preserving them.Шаблон:Sfn Many theories about the cause and the perpetrator have been posited:Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Akkadian soldier of Naram-Sin.jpg
Akkadian soldier of Naram-Sin, with helmet and long sword, on the Nasiriyah stele. He carries a metal vessel of Anatolian type. From Mesopotamia, Iraq, c. 2300 Шаблон:Sc. Iraq Museum.[4]

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Second kingdom

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The second kingdom's period is designated "Mardikh IIB2", and spans the period between 2300 and 2000 Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:Sfn The second kingdom lasted until Ebla's second destruction, which occurred anytime between 2050 and 1950 Шаблон:Sc, with the 2000 Шаблон:Sc dating being a mere formal date.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Akkadians under Sargon of Akkad and his descendant Naram-Sin invaded the northern borders of Ebla aiming for the forests of the Amanus Mountain; the intrusions were separated by roughly 90 years and the areas attacked were not attached to Akkad.Шаблон:Sfn Archi accept that the Ibla mentioned in the annals of Sargon and Naram-Sin is the Syrian Ebla but do not consider them responsible for the destruction which ended the Archive period.Шаблон:Sfn By the time of Naram-Sin, Armi was the hegemonic city in northern Syria and was destroyed by the Akkadian king.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Ebla9.JPG
Palace "P5"

A new local dynasty ruled the second kingdom of Ebla,Шаблон:Sfn but there was continuity with its first kingdom heritage.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla maintained its earliest features, including its architectural style and the sanctity of the first kingdom's religious sites.Шаблон:Sfn A new royal palace was built in the lower town,Шаблон:Sfn and the transition from the archive period is marked only by the destruction of palace "G".Шаблон:Sfn Little is known about the second kingdom because no written material have been discovered aside from one inscription dating to the end of the period.Шаблон:Sfn

The second kingdom was attested to in contemporaneous sources; in an inscription, Gudea of Lagash asked for cedars to be brought from Urshu in the mountains of Ebla, indicating Ebla's territory included Urshu north of Carchemish in modern-day Turkey.Шаблон:Sfn Texts that dates to the seventh year of Amar-Sin (Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc),[note 9] a ruler of the Ur III empire, mention a messenger of the Ensí ("Megum") of Ebla.[note 10][note 11]Шаблон:Sfn The second kingdom was considered a vassal by the Ur III government,Шаблон:Sfn but the nature of the relation is unknown and it included the payment of tribute.Шаблон:Sfn A formal recognition of Ur's overlordship appears to be a condition for the right of trade with that empire.Шаблон:Sfn

The second kingdom disintegrated toward the end of the Шаблон:NowrapШаблон:Sfn and ended with the destruction of the city by fire, although evidence for the event has only been found outside of the so-called "Temple of the Rock", and in the area around palace "E" on the acropolis.Шаблон:Sfn The reason for the destruction is not known;Шаблон:Sfn according to Astour, it could have been the result of a Hurrian invasion Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc,Шаблон:Sfn led by the former Eblaite vassal city of Ikinkalis.[note 12]Шаблон:Sfn The destruction of Ebla is mentioned in the fragmentary Hurro-Hittite legendary epic "Song of Release" discovered in 1983,Шаблон:Sfn which Astour considers as describing the destruction of the second kingdom.Шаблон:Sfn In the epic, an Eblaite assembly led by a man called "Zazalla" prevents king Meki from showing mercy to prisoners from Ebla's former vassal Ikinkalis,Шаблон:Sfn provoking the wrath of the Hurrian storm god Teshub and causing him to destroy the city.Шаблон:Sfn

Third kingdom

Шаблон:Infobox country

Файл:Ibbit-Lim.png
Statue fragment of Ibbit-Lim.

The third kingdom is designated "Mardikh III"; it is divided into periods "A" (Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc) and "B" (Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc).Шаблон:Sfn In period "A", Ebla was quickly rebuilt as a planned city.Шаблон:Sfn The foundations covered the remains of Mardikh II; new palaces and temples were built, and new fortifications were built in two circles – one for the low city and one for the acropolis.Шаблон:Sfn The city was laid out on regular lines and large public buildings were built.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Further construction took place in period "B".Шаблон:Sfn

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The vizier palace

The first known king of the third kingdom is Ibbit-Lim,Шаблон:Sfn who described himself as the Mekim of Ebla.[note 13]Шаблон:Sfn A basalt votive statue bearing Ibbit-Lim's inscription was discovered in 1968; this helped to identify the site of Tell-Mardikh with the ancient kingdom Ebla.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The name of the king is Amorite in the view of Pettinato; it is therefore probable the inhabitants of third kingdom Ebla were predominantly Amorites, as were most of the inhabitants of Syria at that time.Шаблон:Sfn

By the beginning of the Шаблон:Nowrap Ebla had become a vassal of Yamhad, an Amorite kingdom centered in Aleppo.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Written records are not available for this period, but the city was still a vassal during Yarim-Lim III of Yamhad's reign.Шаблон:Sfn One of the known rulers of Ebla during this period was Immeya, who received gifts from the Egyptian Pharaoh Hotepibre, indicating the continuing wide connections and importance of Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn The city was mentioned in tablets from the Yamhadite vassal city of Alalakh in modern-day Turkey; an Eblaite princess married a son of King Ammitaqum of Alalakh, who belonged to a branch of the royal Yamhadite dynasty.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Ebla was destroyed by the Hittite King Шаблон:Nowrap in about 1600 Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:Sfn Indilimma was probably the last king of Ebla;Шаблон:Sfn a seal of his crown prince Maratewari was discovered in the western palace "Q".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Maratewari could well be the last king according to Archi,Шаблон:Sfn who also argued that the "Song of Release" epic describes the destruction of the third kingdom and preserves older elements.Шаблон:Sfn

Later periods

Ebla never recovered from its third destruction. It was a small village in the phase designated "Mardikh IV" (1600–1200 Шаблон:Sc),Шаблон:Sfn and was mentioned in the records of Alalakh as a vassal to the Idrimi dynasty.Шаблон:Sfn "Mardikh V" (1200–535 Шаблон:Sc) was a rural, Early Iron Age settlement that grew in size during later periods.Шаблон:Sfn Further development occurred during "Mardikh VI", which lasted until Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:Sfn "Mardikh VII" began in the Шаблон:Nowrap and lasted until the 7th century,Шаблон:Sfn after which the site was abandoned.Шаблон:Sfn

Site

City layout

Файл:Ebla main sites.jpg
Ebla's landmarks

Ebla consisted of a lower town and a raised acropolis in the center.Шаблон:Sfn During the first kingdom, the city had an area of 56 hectares and was protected by mud-brick fortifications.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla was divided into four districts – each with its own gate in the outer wall.Шаблон:Sfn The acropolis included the king's palace "G",Шаблон:Sfn and one of two temples in city dedicated to Kura (called the "Red Temple").Шаблон:Sfn The lower city included the second temple of Kura in the southeast called "Temple of the Rock".Шаблон:Sfn During the second kingdom, a royal palace (Archaic palace "P5") was built in the lower town northwest of the acropolis,Шаблон:Sfn in addition to temple "D" built over the destroyed "Red Temple".Шаблон:Sfn

During the third kingdom, Ebla was a large city nearly 60 hectares in size,Шаблон:Sfn and was protected by a fortified rampart, with double chambered gates.Шаблон:Sfn The acropolis was fortified and separated from the lower town.Шаблон:Sfn New royal palace "E" was built on the acropolis (during Mardikh IIIB),Шаблон:Sfn and a temple of Ishtar was constructed over the former "Red" and "D" temples (in area "D").Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The lower town was also divided into four districts;Шаблон:Sfn palace "P5" was used during Mardikh IIIA,Шаблон:Sfn and replaced during Mardikh IIIB by the "Intermediate Palace".Шаблон:Sfn

Other third kingdom buildings included the vizier palace,[note 14]Шаблон:Sfn the western palace (in area "Q"),Шаблон:Sfn the temple of Shamash (temple "N"), the temple of Rasap (temple "B1") and the northern palace (built over the "Intermediate Palace").Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the north of the lower town, a second temple for Ishtar was built,Шаблон:Sfn while the former "Temple of the Rock" was replaced by a temple of Hadad.[note 15]Шаблон:Sfn

Royal burials

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The western palace "Q" situated above the royal necropolis

The kings of the first kingdom were buried outside the city; the last ten kings (ending with Irkab-Damu) were buried in Darib,Шаблон:Sfn while older kings were buried in a royal mausoleum located in Binas and only one royal tomb dating to the first kingdom was discovered in Ebla (Hypogeum "G4").Шаблон:Sfn This first kingdom tomb was probably built during the reign of the last king and might be an indication of Eblaite adoption of Mesopotamian traditions to bury the kings beneath their royal palaces.Шаблон:Sfn

The third kingdom royal necropolis was discovered beneath palace "Q" (the western palace); it contains many hypogea but only three were excavated.Шаблон:Sfn Those tombs were natural caves in the bedrock of the palace's foundation; they all date to the 19th and Шаблон:Nowrap and had a similar plan consisting of an entrance shaft, burial chambers and a dromos connecting the shaft to the chamber.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Hypogeum G4

The royal tomb found in the royal palace "G" is designated hypogeum "G4"; it dates to the archive period, most probably the reign of Isar-Damu.Шаблон:Sfn The tomb is heavily damaged; most of its stones were sacked and nothing of the roof system remains.Шаблон:Sfn It also lacks any skeletal remains or funerary goods suggesting that it was either heavily pillaged, never used, or was built as a cenotaph.Шаблон:Sfn

Excavated between 1992 and 1995, it is located underneath the western sector of the palace at a depth of almost 6 meters.Шаблон:Sfn The tomb is composed of two rooms opened on each other's with lime plaster floors.Шаблон:Sfn Both rooms are rectangular in shape; the eastern room (L.6402) is 4 meters wide, more than 3,5 meters long (total length is unknown due to heavy damage) and west–east oriented.Шаблон:Sfn The western room (L.5762) is 5.20 meters long, 4 meters wide and west–east oriented.Шаблон:Sfn Limestone was used to build the walls and few blocks protruding from the sides toward the middle of the rooms suggest the roof to have been a corbelled vault.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Western palace tombs

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Plan of the western palace tombs

The tombs were found under the floor of Building Q, which was built in the Isin-Larsa period.[7]

  • The tomb of the princess: dating to Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc, it is the oldest and smallest of the third kingdom tombs found.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Excavated in 1978,Шаблон:Sfn it contained the remains of a young woman, hence the naming.Шаблон:Sfn The dromos has steps, partially cut in the bedrock and partially paved with stones, leading to the chamber, which was achieved through the enlargement of a natural cave.Шаблон:Sfn The tomb is the only one not pillaged;Шаблон:Sfn it contained precious jewels and funerary objects.Шаблон:Sfn
  • The tomb of the cisterns: this tomb is the most damaged in the necropolis.Шаблон:Sfn It consists of a double room burial; the earliest, (Q79A), was built at the same period of the tomb of the princess, and was badly damaged when the tomb was reused, and a dromos was built in the place of Q79A toward the end of the Шаблон:Nowrap (leading to the founding of burial Q79B).Шаблон:Sfn This was probably the resting place of a king; a club (a symbol of royal power) was discovered in Q79A.Шаблон:Sfn
  • The tomb of the lord of the goats: it is the largest in the necropolis; it includes two depositional chambers and is reached through a vertical shaft.Шаблон:Sfn The occupier of the tomb is not known with certainty, he is called the lord of the goats by archaeologists due to the existence of a throne decorated with bronze goat heads in the tomb.Шаблон:Sfn A silver cup that has the name of king Immeya inscribed was found in the tomb making that king the most likely owner of the burial.Шаблон:Sfn

Government

Шаблон:Further The first kingdom's government consisted of the king (styled Malikum) and the grand vizier, who headed a council of elders (Abbu) and the administration.Шаблон:Sfn The second kingdom was also a monarchy,Шаблон:Sfn but little is known about it because of a lack of written records.Шаблон:Sfn The third kingdom was a city-state monarchy with reduced importance under the authority of Yamhad.Шаблон:Sfn

Administration of the first kingdom

Шаблон:Further The queen shared the running of affairs of state with the king.Шаблон:Sfn The crown prince was involved in internal matters and the second prince was involved in foreign affairs.Шаблон:Sfn Most duties, including military ones, were handled by the vizier and the administration, which consisted of 13 court dignitaries – each of whom controlled between 400 and 800 men forming a bureaucracy with 11,700 people.Шаблон:Sfn Each of the four quarters of the lower city was governed by a chief inspector and many deputies.Шаблон:Sfn To oversee royal interest, the king employed agents (mashkim), collectors (ur) and messengers (kas).Шаблон:Sfn

Administrative divisions

Many client kingdoms owed allegiance to Ebla and each was ruled by its own king (En); those vassal kings were highly autonomous, paying tribute and supplying military assistance to Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn The administrative center in the capital was named the "SA.ZA"; it included the royal palaces, storerooms and some temples.Шаблон:Sfn Regions beyond the walls of the capital were collectively named in Eblaite texts "uru-bar" (literally meaning outside of the city).Шаблон:Sfn The villages and towns under the central authority were either ruled directly from the capital,Шаблон:Sfn or had appointed officials.Шаблон:Sfn The titles of the civil servants do not clearly define the bearer's responsibilities and authority as each town had its own political traditions.Шаблон:Sfn

The chora

The regions under the direct control of the king that were economically vital for the capital are called the "chora" by archaeologists.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Regions under direct control of the king extended beyond the chora and it is difficult to determine the exact size of the kingdom and the chora due to the constant military expansion of Ebla which added new territories; some of those were ruled directly while others were allowed to retain their own rulers as vassals.Шаблон:Sfn

Generally, the chora is the core region of Ebla that includes the economic hinterland supporting the capital.Шаблон:Sfn It includes the cities and villages where the king or his vizier had palaces, towns that included important sanctuaries of gods related to the royal institution, towns visited by the monarch during the different rituals he participated in (such as the renewal of royalty ritual),[note 16] and other cities such as the ones where textiles were delivered.Шаблон:Sfn The chora spans around 3000 km2; from west to east it includes the plains east of Jabal Zawiya, the Maṭkh swamp, al-Hass mountain and mount Shabīth.Шаблон:Sfn Areas directly on the borders of the chora such as al-Ghab, al-Rouge plain and al-Jabbul have close cultural affinity with the chora.Шаблон:Sfn

People, language, and culture

The first and second kingdoms

Файл:Ebla6.JPG
Royal palace "G" courtyard

Mardikh II's periods shared the same culture.Шаблон:Sfn the population of Ebla during Mardikh IIB1 (2400–2300 BC) is estimated to have numbered around 40,000 in the capital, and over 200,000 people in the entire kingdom.Шаблон:Sfn The Eblaites of Mardikh II were Semite-speakers close to their Northwestern Semitic neighbors, such as the Amorites.Шаблон:Sfn Giovanni Pettinato said the Eblaite language, one of the oldest attested Semitic languages,Шаблон:Sfn was a West Semitic language; Gelb and others said it was an East Semitic dialect closer to the Akkadian language.Шаблон:Sfn Academic consensus considers Eblaite an East Semitic language which exhibits both West and East Semitic features.[note 17]Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Ebla held several religious and social festivals, including rituals for the succession of a new king, which normally lasted for several weeks.Шаблон:Sfn The Eblaite calendars were based on a solar year divided into twelve months.Шаблон:Sfn Two calendars were discovered; the "old calendar" used during the reign of Igrish-Halam, and a "new calendar" introduced by vizier Ibbi-Sipish.Шаблон:Sfn Many months were named in honor of deities; in the new calendar, "Itu be-li" was the first month of the year, and meant "the month of the lord".Шаблон:Sfn Each year was given a name instead of a number.Шаблон:Sfn

Women received salaries equal to those of men and could accede to important positions and head government agencies.Шаблон:Sfn The Eblaites imported Kungas from Nagar,[note 18]Шаблон:Sfn and used them to draw the carriages of royalty and high officials, as well as diplomatic gifts for allied cities.Шаблон:Sfn Society was less centered around the palace and the temple than in Mesopotamian kingdoms. The Eblaite palace was designed around the courtyard, which was open toward the city, thus making the administration approachable. This contrasts with Mesopotamian palaces, which resembled citadels with narrow entrances and limited access to the external courtyard.Шаблон:Sfn Music played an important part in the society and musicians were both locals,Шаблон:Sfn or hired from other cities such as Mari.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla also hired acrobats from Nagar, but later reduced their number and kept some to train local Eblaite acrobats.Шаблон:Sfn

The third kingdom

The Mardikh III population was predominately Semitic Amorite.Шаблон:Sfn The Amorites were mentioned in the first kingdom's tablets as neighbors and as rural subjects,Шаблон:Sfn and they came to dominate Ebla after the destruction of the second kingdom.Шаблон:Sfn The city witnessed a great increase in construction, and many palaces, temples and fortifications were built.Шаблон:Sfn The Amorite-speaking Eblaites worshiped many of the same deities as the Paleo-Syrian-speaking Eblaites of earlier periods,Шаблон:Sfn and maintained the sanctity of the acropolis in the center of the city.Шаблон:Sfn The third kingdom's iconography and royal ideology were under the influence of Yamhad's culture; kingship was received from the Yamhadite deities instead of Ishtar of Ebla, which is evident by the Eblaite seals of Indilimma's period.Шаблон:Sfn

Economy

During the first kingdom period, the palace controlled the economy,Шаблон:Sfn but wealthy families managed their financial affairs without government intervention.Шаблон:Sfn The economic system was redistributive; the palace distributed food to its permanent and seasonal workers. It is estimated that around 40,000 persons contributed to this system, but in general, and unlike in Mesopotamia, land stayed in the hands of villages, which paid an annual share to the palace.Шаблон:Sfn Agriculture was mainly pastoral; large herds of cattle were managed by the palace.Шаблон:Sfn The city's inhabitants owned around 140,000 head of sheep and goats, and 9,000 cattle.Шаблон:Sfn

Ebla derived its prosperity from trade;Шаблон:Sfn its wealth was equal to that of the most important Sumerian cities,Шаблон:Sfn and its main commercial rival was Mari.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla's main articles of trade were probably timber from the nearby mountains, and textiles.Шаблон:Sfn Handicrafts also appear to have been a major export, evidenced by the quantity of artifacts recovered from the palaces of the city.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla possessed a wide commercial network reaching as far as modern-day Afghanistan.Шаблон:Sfn It shipped textiles to Cyprus, possibly through the port of Ugarit,Шаблон:Sfn but most of its trade seems to have been directed by river-boat towards Mesopotamia – chiefly Kish.Шаблон:Sfn The main palace G was found to contain artifacts dating from Ancient Egypt bearing the names of the pharaohs Khafre and Pepi I.Шаблон:Sfn

Ebla continued to be a center of trade during the second kingdom, evidenced by the surrounding cities that appeared during its period and were destroyed along with the city.[note 19]Шаблон:Sfn Trade continued to be Ebla's main economic activity during the third kingdom; archaeological finds show there was an extensive exchange with Egypt and coastal Syrian cities such as Byblos.Шаблон:Sfn

Religion

Ebla was a polytheistic state.Шаблон:Sfn During the first kingdom, Eblaites worshiped their dead kings.Шаблон:Sfn The pantheon of the first Ebla included pairs of deities and they can be separated into three genres; in the first and most common one, there were the couples, such as the deity and his female consort.Шаблон:Sfn The second type of pairs was the divine twosomes, such as the deities that cooperate to create the cosmos, like in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian pantheons.Шаблон:Sfn The third type included divine pairs who were actually a single deity that had two names.Шаблон:Sfn Eblaites worshiped few Mesopotamian deities, preferring North-Western Semitic gods, some of which were unique to Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn The first genre of pairs included Hadabal (dNI-da-KUL[8]), who was exclusive to Ebla, and his consort, Belatu ("his wife");Шаблон:Sfn Rasap and his consort Adamma;Шаблон:Sfn the patron gods of the city Kura, who was unique to Ebla, and his consort Barama.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The third genre included the artisan god Kamish/Tit, Kothar-wa-Khasis and the planet Venus represented by twin mountain gods; Shahar as the morning star and Shalim as the evening star.Шаблон:Sfn

The first Eblaites worshiped many other deities, such as the Syrian goddess Ishara,[note 20] who was the goddess of the royal family.Шаблон:Sfn Ishtar was also worshiped but was mentioned only five times in one of the monthly offering lists, while Ishara was far more important, appearing 40 times.Шаблон:Sfn Other deities included Damu;[note 21]Шаблон:Sfn the Mesopotamian god Utu;Шаблон:Sfn Ashtapi;Шаблон:Sfn Dagan;Шаблон:Sfn Hadad (Hadda) and his consort Halabatu ("she of Halab");Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Shipish, the goddess of the sun who had a temple dedicated to her cult.Шаблон:Sfn The four city gates were named after the gods Dagan, Hadda, Rasap and Utu, but it is unknown which gate had which name.Шаблон:Sfn Overall, the offering list mentioned about 40 deities receiving sacrifices.Шаблон:Sfn

During the third kingdom, Amorites worshiped common northern Semitic gods; the unique Eblaite deities disappeared.Шаблон:Sfn Hadad was the most important god, while Ishtar took Ishara's place and became the city's most important deity apart from Hadad.Шаблон:Sfn

Biblical connection theories

Шаблон:Further

At the beginning of the process of deciphering the tablets, Giovanni Pettinato made claims about possible connections between Ebla and the Bible,Шаблон:Sfn citing alleged references in the tablets to the existence of Yahweh, the Patriarchs, Sodom and Gomorrah and other Biblical references.Шаблон:Sfn However, much of the initial media excitement about a supposed Eblaite connections with the Bible, based on preliminary guesses and speculations by Pettinato and others, is now widely discredited and the academic consensus is that Ebla "has no bearing on the Minor Prophets, the historical accuracy of the Biblical Patriarchs, Yahweh worship, or Sodom and Gomorrah".Шаблон:Sfn In Ebla studies, the focus has shifted away from comparisons with the Bible; Ebla is now studied as a civilization in its own right.Шаблон:Sfn The claims led to a bitter personal and academic conflict between the scholars involved, as well as what some described as political interference by the Syrian authorities.Шаблон:Sfn

Genetics

Ancient DNA analysis on 10 human remains dating to the Early and Middle Bronze Age from Ebla found that Eblaites were a mixture of Copper age Levantines and Mesopotamians, and were genetically similar to contemporaneous Levantines.[9]

Haplogroup-wise, one Early Bronze Age (2700-2500 BC) individual carried haplogroup E1b1b1b2a-M123, a lineage likely linked to the diffusion of Afroasiatic languages.[10] Another Early Bronze Age (2572-2470 cal BCE) individual belonged to J1a2a1a2-P58, while four Middle Bronze Age (2000-1800 BC) individuals carried haplogroups J1a2a1a2-P58 (x2), G2a and the West Asian T1a1-L162 which was present since the middle PPNB Levant.[9]

Discovery

Шаблон:Further Шаблон:Multiple image In 1964, Italian archaeologists from the University of Rome La Sapienza under the direction of Paolo Matthiae began excavating at Tell Mardikh.Шаблон:Sfn In 1968, they recovered a statue dedicated to the goddess Ishtar bearing the name of Ibbit-Lim, mentioning him as king of Ebla.Шаблон:Sfn That identified the city, long known from Lagashite and Akkadian inscriptions.Шаблон:Sfn In the next decade, the team discovered a palace (palace G) dating from Шаблон:Circa Шаблон:Sc.Шаблон:Sfn Finds in the palaces include a small sculpture made out of precious materials, Lapis lazuli, black stones and gold.Шаблон:Sfn

Thirteen full and fragmentary lenticular cuneiform tablets were found in the palace throne room, thought to have been there versus the archive because of the city's fall.[11] In a storeroom off the throne room, the nearly complete standard of the queen and fragments believed to come from the standard of the king were found.[12] Other artifacts included wood furniture inlaid with mother-of-pearl and composite statues created from colored stones.Шаблон:Sfn A silver bowl bearing king Immeya's name was recovered from the "Tomb of the Lord of the Goats", together with Egyptian jewels and an Egyptian ceremonial mace presented by pharaoh Hotepibre.Шаблон:Sfn

About 17,000 cuneiform tablet fragments were discovered; when put together, they constitute 2,500 complete tablets, making the archive of Ebla one of the biggest from the Шаблон:NowrapШаблон:Sfn About 80% of the tablets are written using the usual Sumerian combination of logograms and phonetic signs,Шаблон:Sfn while the others exhibited an innovative, purely phonetic representation using Sumerian cuneiform of a previously unknown Semitic language, which was called "Eblaite".Шаблон:Sfn Bilingual Sumerian/Eblaite vocabulary lists were found among the tablets, allowing them to be translated.Шаблон:Sfn The tablets provide many important insights into the cultural, economic and political life in northern Mesopotamia around the middle of the Шаблон:NowrapШаблон:Sfn They also provide insight into the everyday lives of the inhabitants,Шаблон:Sfn and contain information about state revenues, Sumerian-Eblaite dictionaries,Шаблон:Sfn diplomatic exchanges with foreign rulers,Шаблон:Sfn school texts, hymns and myths.Шаблон:Sfn

Library

The over 4000-year-old tablets constitute the oldest library ever found.[13]Шаблон:Sfn At Ebla, "the archives or library constituted an orderly collection of records at least 500 years older than any other that had been found anywhere before."[14] There is evidence of their arrangement and classification.Шаблон:Sfn The larger tablets had originally been stored on shelves, but had fallen onto the floor when the palace was destroyed.Шаблон:Sfn The locations of the fallen tablets allowed the excavators to reconstruct their original positions on the shelves.[15] They found the tablets had originally been shelved according to subject.Шаблон:Sfn

These features were absent from earlier Sumerian excavations. Sophisticated techniques of arrangement of texts, coupled with their composition, evidence the great antiquity of archival and library practices, which may be far older than was assumed to be the case before the discovery of the Ebla library.Шаблон:Sfn A sizable portion of the tablets contain literary and lexicographic texts; evidence seems to suggest the collection also served – at least partially – as a true library rather than a collection of archives intended solely for use by the kings, their ministers, and their bureaucracy.Шаблон:Sfn The tablets show evidence of the early transcription of texts into foreign languages and scripts, classification and cataloging for easier retrieval, and arrangement by size, form and content.Шаблон:Sfn The Ebla tablets have thus provided scholars with new insights into the origin of library practices that were in use 4,500 years ago.Шаблон:Sfn

While the absolute chronology of the archive is not yet certain a relative chronology for the 50-year period has been established. Because Ebla did not use Mesopotamian style year names or year numbers and the name of rulers was rarely mentioned in the texts scholars used script changes, grammar changes, and most importantly a prosopography of the members of the court, especially the wives and daughters of the king. The most relevant tablets for this effort were a series of yearly metal accounts and monthly linen accounts.[16][17]

Most of the recovered tablets and tablet fragments were stored at the Idlib Regional Museum in Syria. Their current condition is unknown.

Legacy

Ebla's first kingdom is an example of early Syrian centralized states,Шаблон:Sfn and is considered one of the earliest empires by scholars,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn such as Samuel Finer,Шаблон:Sfn and Karl Moore, who consider it the first-recorded world power.Шаблон:Sfn Ebla's discovery changed the former view of Syria's history as a bridge between Mesopotamia and Egypt; it proved the region was a center of civilization in its own right.Шаблон:Sfn

Syrian Civil War

As a result of the Syrian Civil War, excavations of Ebla stopped in March 2011.Шаблон:Sfn By 2013, it was under control of an opposition armed group called Arrows of the Right, who took advantage of its elevated location to use it as an observation point to watch for incoming government air attacks, as well as attempting to protect the site from looting.Шаблон:Sfn[18] Many tunnels were dug and a crypt full of human remains was discovered; the remains were scattered and discarded by the robbers, who hoped to find jewelry and other precious artifacts.Шаблон:Sfn Besides excavations by rebels, nearby villagers also began digging at the site with the aim of finding and looting artifacts; some villagers removed carloads of soil suitable for making ceramic liners for bread-baking ovens from the tunnels.Шаблон:Sfn[19]

The site was captured by the Syrian Armed Forces on 30 January 2020 during the 5th Northwestern Syria offensive, along with surrounding villages.[20][21][22]

See also

Шаблон:Portal

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Div col Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend Шаблон:Div col end

Further reading

  • BONECHI, Marco. "MORE ON THE EBLA GATEKEEPERS.", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 106, pp. 33–36, 2012
  • CATAGNOTI, Amalia. "IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE WAR. THE TRUCE BETWEEN EBLA AND MARI (ARET XVI 30) AND THE RANSOM OF PRISONERS.", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 106, pp. 45–63, 2012
  • Maiocchi, Massimo. "DECORATIVE PARTS AND PRECIOUS ARTIFACTS AT EBLA.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 62, pp. 1–24, 2010
  • Шаблон:Cite journal
  • Pinnock, Frances. "Ebla and Ur: Relations, Exchanges and Contacts between Two Great Capitals of the Ancient Near East.", Iraq, vol. 68, pp. 85–97, 2006
  • [1] Pinnock, Frances. "The Urban Landscape of Old Syrian Ebla." Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 53, pp. 13–33, 2001
  • Шаблон:Cite journal

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:Ancient states and regions of the Levant Шаблон:Syria topics Шаблон:Idlib Governorate Шаблон:Early Rulers of Mesopotamia Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  2. ↑ Archi, Alfonso. "The Wars of Ebla at the Time of Minister Ibrium" Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 48, no. 2, 2021, pp. 189-220
  3. ↑ POMPONIO, Francesco. "FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS ON KIŠKI IN THE EBLA TEXTS." Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 107, pp. 71–83, 2013
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  6. ↑ Archi, Alfonso, and Maria Giovanna Biga. “A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 55, pp. 1–44, 2003
  7. ↑ MATTHIAE, PAOLO.,"Two Princely Tombs at Tell Mardikh-Ebla.", Archaeology, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 8–17, 1980
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  9. ↑ 9,0 9,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Archi, Alfonso. “The Tablets of the Throne Room of the Royal Palace G of Ebla.” Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 53, pp. 9–18, 2015
  12. ↑ Frances Pinnock. “THE KING’S STANDARD FROM EBLA PALACE G.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 67, pp. 3–22, 2015
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  14. ↑ Wellisch, H. H. (1981). Ebla: The World's Oldest Library. The Journal of Library History (1974-1987), 16(3), 488–500. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25541212.
  15. ↑ Archi, Alfonso., "Position of the Tablets of Ebla.", Orientalia, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 67–69, 1988
  16. ↑ Biga, Maria Giovanna, and Francesco Pomponio., "Elements for a Chronological Division of the Administrative Documentation of Ebla.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 179–201, 1990
  17. ↑ Biga, Maria Giovanna., "The Reconstruction of a Relative Chronology for the Ebla Texts.", Orientalia, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 345–67, 2003
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  19. ↑ Casana J, Laugier EJ (2017) Satellite imagery-based monitoring of archaeological site damage in the Syrian civil war. PLoS ONE 12(11): e0188589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188589
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web


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