Английская Википедия:Election of Ali to the caliphate
Шаблон:Infobox historical event Ali ibn Abi Talib was acclaimed in 656 CE as the fourth caliph after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Following the 656 assassination of the third caliph Uthman in Medina by provincial rebels who had grievances about injustice and corruption, the prophet's cousin and son-in-law was elected to the caliphate by the rebels, the Ansar (early Medinan Muslims), and the Muhajirun (early Meccan Muslims). While the election of Ali faced little opposition, his support was limited among the Quraysh, some of whom aspired to the caliphate. The Umayyads (Uthman's tribesmen) and some others thereby left Medina––some thus breaking their oaths of allegiance––and soon rebelled against Ali.
Background
Opposition to Uthman
Ali frequently accused the third caliph Uthman of deviating from the Quran and the Sunna,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and he was joined in this criticism by most of the senior companions.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Uthman was also widely accused of nepotism,Шаблон:Sfn corruption,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and injustice,Шаблон:Sfn and Ali is known to have protested his conduct,Шаблон:Sfn including his lavish gifts for his kinsmen.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali also protected outspoken companions, such as Abu Dharr and Ammar,Шаблон:Sfn against the wrath of the caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Ali appears in early sources as a restraining influence on Uthman without directly opposing him.Шаблон:Sfn Some supporters of Ali were part of the opposition to Uthman,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn joined in their efforts by TalhaШаблон:Sfn and Zubayr, who were both companions of Muhammad, and by his widow Aisha.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Among the supporters of Ali were Malik al-Ashtar (Шаблон:Died in) and other religiously-learnedШаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Lit).Шаблон:Sfn These wanted to see Ali as the next caliph, though there is no evidence that he communicated or coordinated with them.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is also said to have rejected the requests to lead the rebels,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn although he might have sympathized with their grievances,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and was thus considered a natural focus for the opposition,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn at least morally.Шаблон:Sfn It is also likely that some companions supported the protests with the hope of either deposing Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn or changing his policies,Шаблон:Sfn thus underestimating the severity of the opposition to Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn
Assassination of Uthman
Шаблон:Main As their grievances mounted, discontented groups from provinces began arriving in Medina in 35/656.Шаблон:Sfn On their first attempt,Шаблон:Sfn the Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to send a delegation to negotiate with Uthman, unlike Talha and Ammar, who might have encouraged the Egyptians to advance on the town.Шаблон:Sfn Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to avoid violence, which was heeded.Шаблон:Sfn He also acted as a mediator between Uthman and the provincial dissidentsШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn more than onceШаблон:Sfn to address their economicalШаблон:Sfn and politicalШаблон:Sfn grievances. In particular, he negotiated and guaranteed on behalf of Uthman the promises that persuaded the rebels to return home and ended the first siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali then urged Uthman to publicly repent, which he did.Шаблон:Sfn The caliph soon retracted his statement, however, possibly because his secretary Marwan convinced him that repentance would only embolden the opposition.Шаблон:Sfn On their way back home, some Egyptian rebels intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They now returned to Medina and laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time, demanding that he abdicates. The caliph refused and claimed he was unaware of the letter,Шаблон:Sfn for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali and another companion sided with Uthman about the letter,Шаблон:Sfn and suspected Marwan,Шаблон:Sfn while a report by the Sunni al-Baladhuri (Шаблон:Died in) suggests that the caliph accused Ali of forging the letter.Шаблон:Sfn This is likely when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn That Ali was behind the letter is also the opinion of Leone Caetani (Шаблон:Died in). Giorgio Levi della Vida (Шаблон:Died in) is unsure, while Wilferd Madelung strongly rejects the accusation, saying that it "stretches the imagination" in the absence of any evidence.Шаблон:Sfn In turn, he accuses Marwan,Шаблон:Sfn the bellicose secretary of Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn while Hugh N. Kennedy holds Uthman responsible for the letter.Шаблон:Sfn The caliph was assassinated soon afterward in the final days of 35 AH (June 656) by the Egyptian rebelsШаблон:Sfn during a raid on his residence in Medina.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Role of Ali in the assassination
Ali played no role in the deadly attack,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn He also convinced the rebels not to prevent the delivery of water to Uthman's house during the siege.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Beyond this, historians disagree about his measures to protect the third caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Ali is represented by al-Tabari (Шаблон:Died in) as an honest negotiator genuinely concerned for Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Husain M. Jafri (Шаблон:Died in) and Madelung highlight multiple attempts by Ali for reconciliation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and Martin Hinds (Шаблон:Died in) believes that Ali could not have done anything more for Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Reza Shah-Kazemi points to Ali's "constructive criticism" of Uthman and his opposition to violence,Шаблон:Sfn while Moojan Momen writes that Ali mediated between Uthman and the rebels, urging the former to alter his policies and refusing the requests from the latter to lead them.Шаблон:Sfn This is similar to the view of John McHugo, who adds that Ali withdrew in frustration when his peace efforts where thwarted by Marwan.Шаблон:Sfn Fred Donner and Robert Gleave suggest that Ali was the immediate beneficiary of Uthman's death.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This is challenged by Madelung, who argues that Aisha would have not actively opposed Uthman if Ali had been the prime mover of the rebellion and its future beneficiary.Шаблон:Sfn He and others observe the hostility of Aisha toward Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which resurfaced immediately after his accession in the Battle of the Camel (656).Шаблон:Sfn Laura Veccia Vaglieri (Шаблон:Died in) notes that Ali refused to lead the rebellion but sympathized with them and possibly agreed with their calls for abdication.Шаблон:Sfn Hossein Nasr and Asma Afsaruddin,Шаблон:Sfn Levi della Vida,Шаблон:Sfn and Julius Wellhausen (Шаблон:Died in) believe that Ali remained neutral,Шаблон:Sfn while Caetani labels Ali as the chief culprit in the murder of Uthman, even though the evidence suggests otherwise.Шаблон:Sfn Mahmoud M. Ayoub (Шаблон:Died in) notes the often pro-Umayyad stance of the Western classical orientalists, with the exception of Madelung.Шаблон:Sfn
Ali and retribution for Uthman
Ali was openly critical of the conduct of Uthman, though he generally neither justified his violent death nor condemned the killers.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn While he did not condone the assassination,Шаблон:Sfn Ali probably held Uthman responsible through his injustice for the protests which led to his death,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn a view for which Ismail Poonawala cites Waq'at Siffin.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung sides with this judgement of Ali from a judicial point of view, saying that Uthman probably did not sanction the murder of Niyar ibn Iyad Aslami, which triggered the deadly raid on his residence, but he obstructed justice by preventing an investigation into the murder, fearing that his aide Marwan was behind it.Шаблон:Sfn Still, in his letters to Mu'awiya (Шаблон:Reign) and elsewhere,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ali insisted that he would bring the murderers to justice in due course,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn probably after establishing his authority.Шаблон:Sfn Quoting the Shia al-Ya'qubi (Шаблон:Died in) and Ibn A'tham al-Kufi, Ayoub suggests that a mob from various tribes murdered Uthman and that Ali could have not punished them without risking widespread tribal conflict, even if he could identify them.Шаблон:Sfn Here, Farhad Daftary says that the actual murderers soon fled Medina after the assassination,Шаблон:Sfn a view for which Jafri cites al-Tabari.Шаблон:Sfn Closely associated with Ali was Malik al-Ashtar, a leader of the Шаблон:Transl,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn who had led the Kufan delegation against Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn even though they heeded Ali's call for nonviolence,Шаблон:Sfn and did not participate in the siege of Uthman's residence.Шаблон:Sfn A leading Egyptian rebel with links to Ali was his stepson, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who was allegedly among those who killed Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn Some authors have rejected this accusation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn though most seem to agree that Muhammad visited Uthman shortly before his death and rebuked him for his conduct.Шаблон:Sfn These two men and some other supporters of Ali were implicated by Mu'awiya in the assassination of Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn As such, some authors suggest that Ali was unwilling or unable to punish these individuals.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The revenge for Uthman soon became the pretext for two revolts against Ali.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Support
In the aftermath of the assassination, the potential candidates for the caliphate were Ali and Talha,Шаблон:Sfn though some suggest that Talha lacked any popular support,Шаблон:Sfn and that Ali was thus the obvious choice.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After the assassination of Uthman, his tribesmen (the Umayyads) fled Medina,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and the rebels and Medinans thus controlled the city. While Talha may have enjoyed some support among the Egyptian rebels,Шаблон:Sfn Ali was preferred by most of the Ansar (early Medinan Muslims) and the Iraqi rebels, who had earlier heeded Ali's call against violence.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Alternatively, a report by al-Tabari suggests that the Basran and Kufan opposition supported Talha and Zubayr, respectively.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn After the assassination, the report continues, both groups supported Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Poonawala,Шаблон:Sfn Moojan Momen,Шаблон:Sfn Jafri,Шаблон:Sfn Donner,Шаблон:Sfn and Sean Anthony add the (majority of the) Muhajirun (early Meccan Muslims) to the above list of Ali's supporters.Шаблон:Sfn The key tribal chiefs also favored Ali at the time, writes Ira M. Lapidus.Шаблон:Sfn
Reluctance of Ali
The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who was initially reluctant to accept it,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn saying that he preferred to be a minister (Шаблон:Transl).Шаблон:Sfn Reza Aslan attributes this reluctance to the polarizing impact of the assassination on the community,Шаблон:Sfn while Will Durant (Шаблон:Died in) writes, "[Ali] shrank from drama in which religion had been displaced by politics, and devotion by intrigue."Шаблон:Sfn For Jafri, Ali must have been wary of implicating himself in Uthman's regicide by becoming the next caliph.Шаблон:Sfn For Veccia Vaglieri, however, that Ali allowed himself to be nominated by the rebels was an error, because it left him exposed to accusations of complicity in the assassination.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, M.A. Shaban and Anthony believe that Ali stepped in to prevent chaos and fill the power vacuum created by the regicide.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The opinion of Ayoub is close.Шаблон:Sfn Soon after, possibly when it became clear that he enjoyed popular support, Ali accepted the caliphate,Шаблон:Sfn demanding a public pledge at the mosque, according to al-Tabari and al-Baladhuri.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Shah-Kazemi and Jafri maintain that Ali was compelled by popular pressure to accede,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn with the latter author presenting as evidence an address in Nahj al-balagha, attributed to Ali at the Battle of the Camel.Шаблон:Sfn
Pledges
Ali received the public pledge of allegiance in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina,Шаблон:Sfn possibly the day after Uthman's murder,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn though Poonawala and a report by al-Tabari place the ceremony several days later.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn It appears that Ali personally did not force anyone for pledge. Among others, Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas, Abd-Allah ibn Umar, and Usama ibn Zayd refused to give their oaths,Шаблон:Sfn though the case of Usama is challenged by Madelung who concludes that he pledged allegiance to Ali but did not fight in his battles.Шаблон:Sfn To this list Ayoub adds Sa'id ibn al-As, al-Walid ibn Uqba, and Marwan, suggesting that these three withheld their pledge because of their personal grudges against Ali.Шаблон:Sfn The Shia scholar Muhammad H. Tabatabai (Шаблон:Died in) further adds Amr ibn al-As, Busr ibn Abi Artat, Samura ibn Jundab, and al-Mughira, claiming that those opposed to Ali are often guilty in the historical sources of religious transgressions.Шаблон:Sfn On the whole, Madelung suggests that there is less evidence for any violence here than in the case of the first caliph Abu Bakr (Шаблон:Reign), even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, that the majority favored Ali in Medina might have created an intimidating atmosphere for those opposed to him.Шаблон:Sfn McHugo suggests that Malik al-Ashtar and some others may have contributed to this atmosphere, probably without the approval of Ali.Шаблон:Sfn
Talha and Zubayr
Talha and Zubayr, both companions of Muhammad with ambitions for the high office,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn voluntarily gave their pledges to Ali but later broke them,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn although some early sources say that they pledged under duress.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ibn Abi Shayba (Шаблон:Died in) writes that Talha told some in Basra that he pledged to Ali with a sword over his head in a walled garden,Шаблон:Sfn and Hasan al-Basri (Шаблон:Died in) too said that he saw Talha and Zubayr pledging to Ali with a sword over their head in a walled garden.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, a report by the Sunni al-Baladhuri implies that Talha voluntarily paid his allegiance to Ali,Шаблон:Sfn while other reports by Ibn Sa'd (Шаблон:Died in), al-Tabari,Шаблон:Sfn al-Ya'qubi (Шаблон:Died in), al-Kufi (ninth century), and Ibn Abd Rabbih (Шаблон:Died in) place Talha and Zubayr among the first who (voluntarily) pledged to Ali.Шаблон:Sfn Laura Veccia Vaglieri (Шаблон:Died in) views the claims about coercion as an invented justification for the later violation of the pacts made by Talha and Zubayr.Шаблон:Sfn Gleave similarly dismisses the (Sunni) reports that Talha and Zubayr did not pledge or did so under duress, saying that these reports reflect their authors' attempts to provide a fuller context for their subsequent rebellion against Ali in the Battle of the Camel.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung argues that the election of Ali could have not happened without the pledge of Talha, as Ali's main rival, but he also suggests that Talha did not come to the ceremony voluntarily and was dragged there by al-Ashtar.Шаблон:Sfn Alternatively, Hamid Mavani refers to a letter in Nahj al-balagha where Ali rebukes Talha and Zubayr before the Battle of the Camel for breaking their oaths after voluntarily offering them.Шаблон:Sfn Madelung also dismisses as legendary the report by al-Tabari about Zubayr's refusal to pledge.Шаблон:Sfn
As for the motives of Talha and Zubayr, the duo revolted after Ali refused to grant them favors.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In particular, Ali did not offer the two any posts in his government,Шаблон:Sfn specifically the governorships of Basra and Kufa.Шаблон:Sfn There is, however, one report by al-Ya'qubi where Ali offered the governorship of Yemen to Talha and the rule of al-Yamama and Bahrain to Zubayr, but the two asked for even more.Шаблон:Sfn For the Shia Muhammad H. Tabatabai (Шаблон:Died in), the equal distribution of the treasury funds among Muslims by Ali antagonized Talha and Zubayr,Шаблон:Sfn while Hassan Abbas suggests that the two jumped ship when Ali began to reverse the excessive entitlements of the ruling elite during the caliphate of Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn under whom Talha and Zubayr had amassed considerable wealth.Шаблон:Sfn
Legitimacy
Hugh N. Kennedy and Veccia Vaglieri write that the election of Ali faced little opposition,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and this is also implied by Shaban.Шаблон:Sfn Jafri and Momen further suggest that Ali was elected by a near-consensus, adding that he was the only popularly-elected caliph in Muslim history.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The latter part is also echoed by Ayoub.Шаблон:Sfn In reality, even though underprivileged groups rallied around Ali,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to the title of caliph.Шаблон:Sfn Within the Quraysh, Madelung identifies two camps opposed to Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr (Шаблон:Reign) and Umar (Шаблон:Reign) (rather than the caliphate of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim). Madelung considers the latter group as the majority within the Quraysh.Шаблон:Sfn Kennedy similarly writes that the Quraysh challenged Ali to preserve the status of their tribe,Шаблон:Sfn while Jafri suggests that the Meccan elites were threatened by the ascetic Ali who represented the Ansar and the lower classes of the society.Шаблон:Sfn Ali was also vocal about the divine and exclusive right of Muhammad's kin to succeed him,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which would have jeopardized the future ambitions of other Qurayshites for leadership.Шаблон:Sfn
Exodus
The Umayyads fled Medina after the assassination of Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn notable among them Marwan.Шаблон:Sfn Some Qurayshite figures also left Medina without paying allegiance to Ali or after breaking their oaths.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Most of them gathered in Mecca, though some made their way to Damascus.Шаблон:Sfn In particular, Talha and Zubayr left Medina on the pretext of performing the Шаблон:Transliteration (lesser pilgrimage).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Muhammad's widow Aisha was already in Mecca,Шаблон:Sfn having left Medina earlier ostensibly for the Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:Sfn despite the pleas of Uthman, who believed her presence in Medina would restrain the rebels from attack.Шаблон:Sfn After learning about the accession of Ali, she began to mobilize the rebel party in favor of her close relatives, Talha and Zubayr.Шаблон:Sfn She did so ostensibly to seek justice for Uthman, although some have questioned her motives because she had earlier actively opposed Uthman.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Ali's views
Listing multiple pieces of evidence from Nahj al-balagha and other sources,Шаблон:Sfn Mavani argues that Ali saw the general pledge of allegiance as a pivotal component in the legitimacy of his caliphate,Шаблон:Sfn and thus distinguished between his election and that of the first caliph Abu Bakr:Шаблон:Sfn In the words of Ali and the second caliph Umar, the caliphate of Abu Bakr was decided hastily by a small shura (council), whereas Ali emphasized the general public's endorsement of his caliphate.Шаблон:Sfn Some authors maintain that Ali unequivocally viewed himself as the most qualified person to lead the Muslim community after Muhammad by virtue of his merits and his kinship with Muhammad.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mavani, Madelung, and Shah-Kazemi add that Ali further considered himself as the designated successor of Muhammad through a divine decree at the Ghadir Khumm.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Mavani also speculates that Ali would have not sought the title of caliph had Muslims withheld their support.Шаблон:Sfn However, when the Muslim community favored him, suggests Madelung, Ali no longer considered the caliphate as his right, but also as his duty.Шаблон:Sfn
First acts
Ali acceded to the caliphate in a difficult period,Шаблон:Sfn inheriting a troubled state of affairs.Шаблон:Sfn At the time of the assassination, the key governorships were distributed among the tribesmen of Uthman, the Umayyads,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn the late conversion of most of whom to IslamШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn might have suggested expediency to Ali and the Ansar.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Ibn Abbas and al-Mughira advised Ali to initially confirm these governors, in order to consolidate his caliphate,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn even though some of them were unpopular.Шаблон:Sfn Ali rejected this and replaced nearly all the governors who had served Uthman,Шаблон:Sfn saying that the likes of those men should not be appointed to any office.Шаблон:Sfn The only exemption was Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, a companion of Muhammad elected in Kufa by the rebels.Шаблон:Sfn
In this and other decisions, Ali was driven by his sense of religious mission, suggests Madelung,Шаблон:Sfn while Poonawala writes that Ali changed the governors to please the rebels.Шаблон:Sfn Donner has a similar view to Madelung and Shah-Kazemi maintains that justice was the key principle that molded Ali's policies in all domains.Шаблон:Sfn Even so, Madelung views this decision of Ali as politically naive.Шаблон:Sfn His view is in turn rejected by Ali Bahramian, who suggests that replacing the governors was the only available course of action, both on principle and in practice. He writes that injustice was the main grievance of the provincial rebels and they would have turned against Ali had he confirmed Uthman's governors.Шаблон:Sfn Ayoub says that the idealism of Ali in time became an example for the pious but also led to war in the short term.Шаблон:Sfn He adds that political flexibility was a quality of Muhammad, absent in Ali.Шаблон:Sfn In contrast, Tabatabai asserts that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, quoting verse 68:9,Шаблон:Sfn "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn To support his view, Tabatabai notes that Muhammad repeatedly rejected calls for peace from his enemies in return for leaving their gods alone.Шаблон:Sfn Shah-Kazemi too challenges the view of Ayoub, saying that Muhammad appointed some of his erstwhile enemies to leadership positions to give them an opportunity to prove their conversion to Islam, without compromising his principles. In contrast, confirming those whom Ali dismissed would have been tantamount to overlooking their corruption and undermining the moral basis of his caliphate.Шаблон:Sfn Among the incumbent governors was Uthman's cousin Mu'awiya, who soon launched a campaign against Ali on the pretext of vengeance for Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn
Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which might have also been the method of Muhammad.Шаблон:Sfn Shaban suggests that this change made Ali the rallying point of underprivileged groups.Шаблон:Sfn In doing so, Ayoub suggests that Ali wanted to abolish the social hierarchies established by Umar and Uthman.Шаблон:Sfn As his official designation, Ali adopted the title [[Amir al-Mu'minin|Шаблон:Transliteration]] (Шаблон:Lit), which was also used earlier by Umar. He rejected the title of caliph, which he perhaps found to be depreciated and tainted by his predecessor.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
References
Sources
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