Английская Википедия:Elision

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses Шаблон:Sound change In linguistics, an elision or deletion is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase. However, these terms are also used to refer more narrowly to cases where two words are run together by the omission of a final sound.[1] An example is the elision of word-final /t/ in English if it is preceded and followed by a consonant: "first light" is often pronounced “firs’ light” (/fɜrs laɪt/.)[2] Many other terms are used to refer to specific cases where sounds are omitted.

Citation forms and contextual forms

A word may be spoken individually in what is called the citation form. This corresponds to the pronunciation given in a dictionary. However, when words are spoken in context, it often happens that some sounds that belong to the citation form are omitted. Elision is not an all-or-nothing process: elision is more likely to occur in some styles of speaking and less likely in others.[3] Many writers have described the styles of speech in which elision is most commonly found, using terms such as "casual speech",[4] "spontaneous speech",[5] "allegro speech"[6] or "rapid speech".[2] In addition, what may appear to be the disappearance of a sound may in fact be a change in the articulation of a sound that makes it less audible. For example, it has been said that in some dialects of Spanish the word-final -ado, as in cansado (tired) is pronounced /ado/ in citation form but the /d/ is omitted in normal speech, giving "cansao". More careful description will show that the Spanish phoneme /d/ is usually pronounced as a voiced dental fricative [ð] when it occurs between vowels. In casual speech it is frequently weakened to a voiced dental approximant [ð̞].[7] The most extreme possibility is complete elision resulting in a diphthong with no observable consonantal tongue gesture.[8] In this view, elision is the final stage in lenition or consonant weakening, the last phase of a cline or continuum describable as d > ð > ð̞ > ∅. Whether the elision is of vowel or consonant, if it is consistent through time, the form with elision may come to be accepted as the norm: tabula > tabla as in Spanish, mutare > muer ("change, molt") in French, luna > lua ("moon") in Portuguese. It is usual to explain elision and related connected-speech phenomena in terms of the principle of least effort or "economy of effort". This concept has been stated as "If a word or expression remains perfectly intelligible without a certain sound, people tend to omit that sound."[9]

Historical elisions

There are various ways in which the present form of a language may reflect elisions that have taken place in the past. This topic is an area of diachronic linguistics. Such elisions may originally have been optional but have over time become obligatory (or mandatory). An example of historical elision in French that began at the phrasal level and became lexicalized is preposition Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang "today", now felt by native speakers to be one word, but deriving from Шаблон:Lang, literally "at the day of today" and meaning "nowadays", although Шаблон:Lang is no longer recognized as meaningful in French. In English, the word "cupboard" would originally have contained /p/ between /ʌ/ and /b/, but the /p/ is believed to have disappeared from the pronunciation of the word about the fifteenth century.[10]

Contractions

In many languages there is a process similar but not identical to elision, called contraction, where common words that occur frequently together form a shortened pronunciation.[11] This may be a historical case (for example, French "ce est" has become "c'est" /sɛ/ and it would now be incorrect to say "ce est" /sə ɛ/) or one that is still optional (in English, a speaker may say "that is" /ðæt ɪz/ or "that's" /ðæts/). Contractions of both sorts are natural forms of the language used by native speakers and are often colloquial but not considered substandard.[12] English contractions are usually vowel-less weak form words.[12] In some cases the contracted form is not a simple matter of elision: for example, "that's" as a contraction is made not only by the elision of the /ɪ/ of "is" but also by the change of final consonant from /z/ to /s/; "won't" for "will not" requires not only the elision of the /ɒ/ of "not" but also the vowel change /ɪ/ → /oʊ/ and in English RP "can't" and "shan't" change vowel from /æ/ of "can" and "shall" to /ɑː/ in /kɑːnt/, /ʃɑːnt/. In some languages employing the Latin alphabet, such as English, the omitted letters in a contraction are replaced by an apostrophe (e.g., isn't for is not). Written Greek marks elisions in the same way.

Elision in poetry

Шаблон:Further Elision is frequently found in verse. It is sometimes explicitly marked in the spelling, and in other cases has to be inferred from knowledge of the metre. Elisions occurred regularly in Latin, but were not written, except in inscriptions and comedy. Elision of a vowel before a word starting in a vowel is frequent in poetry, where the metre sometimes requires it. For example, the opening line of Catullus 3 is Lugete, O Veneres Cupidinesque, but would be read as Lugeto Veneres Cupidinesque (audio).[13] There are many examples of poetic contraction in English verse of past centuries marked by spelling and punctuation. Frequently found examples are over > o'er and ever > e'er. Multiple examples can be seen in lines such as the following from Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard by Thomas Gray, published in 1751:

  • Th' applause of list'ning senates to command
  • He gain'd from heav'n ('twas all he wish'd) a friend

Deletion

The term deletion is used in some modern work instead of elision.[14] When contemporary or historic deletion is treated in terms of Generative phonology it is usual to explain the process as one of substituting zero for a phoneme, in the form of a phonological rule.[15] The form of such rules is typically 

X --> ∅ (i.e. the segment x becomes zero)

An example of a deletion rule (for /r/-deletion in English RP) is provided by Giegerich.[16] If we start with the premise that the underlying form of the word "hear" has a final /r/ and has the phonological form /hɪər/, we need to be able to explain how /r/ is deleted at the end of "hear" but is not deleted in the derived word "hearing". The difference is between word-final /r/ in "hear", where the /r/ would form part of the rhyme of a syllable, and word-medial /r/ which would form the onset of the second syllable of "hearing". The following rule deletes /r/ in "hear", giving /hɪə/, but does not apply in the case of "hearing", giving /hɪərɪŋ/. 

                rhyme
    /r/ --> ∅/  _____

Writing

Even though the effort that it takes to pronounce a word does not have any direct influence on writing, a word or phrase may be spelled in a way that reflects elisions. This happens in poetry, as explained above, and in drama in order to reflect the presence of elisions or non-standard speech forms. The term eye dialect is sometimes used to refer to this practice.

Examples

Шаблон:IPA notice

English

Examples of elision in English:

Word IPA before elision IPA after elision
natural Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en
laboratory (British English) Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en
laboratory (American English) Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en
temperature Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en, Шаблон:IPAc-en, sometimes Шаблон:IPAc-en
family Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en
vegetable Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en or devoiced into Шаблон:IPAc-en
fifth Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en
him Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en
going to Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en (gonna)
it is, it has Шаблон:IPAc-en, Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en (it's)
I have Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en (I've)
is not Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:IPAc-en (isn't)

Most elisions in English are not mandatory, but they are used in common practice and even sometimes in more formal speech. This applies to nearly all the examples in the above table. However, these types of elisions are rarely shown in modern writing and never shown in formal writing. In formal writing, the words are written the same whether or not the speaker would elide them, but in many plays and classic American literature, words are often written with an elision to demonstrate accent:

Шаблон:Quote

Other examples, such as him and going to shown in the table above, are generally used only in fast or informal speech. They are still generally written as is unless the writer intends to show the dialect or speech patterns of the speaker.

The third type of elision is in common contractions, such as can't, isn't, or I'm. The apostrophes represent the sounds that are removed and are not spoken but help the reader to understand that it is a contraction and not a word of its own. These contractions used to be written out when transcribed (i.e. cannot, is not, I am) even if they were pronounced as a contraction, but now they are always written as a contraction so long as they are spoken that way. However, they are by no means mandatory and a speaker or writer may choose to keep the words distinct rather than contract them either as a stylistic choice, when using formal register, to make meaning clearer to children or non-native English speakers, or to emphasize a word within the contraction (e.g. I am going!)

In non-rhotic accents of English, Шаблон:IPA is dropped unless it's followed by a vowel, making cheetah and cheater completely homophonous. In non-rhotic accents spoken outside of North America, many instances of Шаблон:IPAc-en correspond to Шаблон:IPAc-en in North American English as Шаблон:IPAc-en and Шаблон:IPAc-en are used instead of Шаблон:IPAc-en.

Finnish

The consonant in the partitive case ending Шаблон:Lang elides when it is surrounded by two short vowels except when the first of the two vowels involved is paragoge (added to the stem). Otherwise, it stays. For example, Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang, but Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang (not a short vowel), Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang (consonant stem), Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang (paragogic Шаблон:Lang on a consonant stem).

French

Шаблон:Main

Elision of unstressed vowels (usually Шаблон:IPAslink) is common in the French language and, in some cases, must be indicated orthographically with an apostrophe.

Elision of vowel and consonant sounds was also an important phenomenon in the phonological evolution of French. For example, s following a vowel and preceding another consonant regularly elided, with compensatory lengthening of the vowel.

German

Nouns and adjectives that end with unstressed "el" or "er" have the "e" elided when they are declined or a suffix follows. ex. Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, etc., and Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang.

The final Шаблон:Lang of a noun is also elided when another noun or suffix is concatenated onto it: Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang.

In both of the above cases, the Шаблон:Lang represents a schwa.

Icelandic

Elision (Шаблон:Lang) is common in Icelandic. There are a variety of rules for its occurrence,[17] but the most notable is the loss of trailing consonants in common particles as well as the merger of similar vowel sounds. For example, the ubiquitous Шаблон:Lang (verb) structure ("I am verb-ing") becomes transformed to Шаблон:Lang (verb); the full particles is spoken only when a person is sounding the sentence out word by word. Another noteworthy and extremely common example along this line includes the phrase Шаблон:Lang ("really?") which is pronounced as Шаблон:Lang. A common example of internal consonant loss in Icelandic is Шаблон:Lang ("here you go", "please"), pronounced Шаблон:Lang (the hidden Шаблон:Lang sound is unrelated to the elision and occurs when a Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA precedes Шаблон:IPA). Another special case of elision is the loss of Шаблон:IPA from the start of Шаблон:Lang ("this", "that"), which is sometimes pronounced Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang (what is this?) -> Шаблон:Lang). The pronunciation of the full word tends to lay emphasis on it ("What is this?") while the elision of the word leads to its deemphasis ("What is this?"). The loss of the Шаблон:IPA in Шаблон:Lang is similar to how Шаблон:IPA can be lost in "that" and "this" when asking a question and speaking swiftly in English.

Irish

Elision is found in the Ulster dialect of Irish, particularly in final position. Шаблон:Lang, for example, while pronounced Шаблон:IPA in the Conamara dialect, is pronounced Шаблон:IPA in Ulster. Шаблон:Lang is also elided when it begins intervocalic consonant clusters. Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:Lang; Шаблон:Lang is pronounced Шаблон:Lang.

Japanese

Шаблон:See alsoШаблон:More citations needed Elision is extremely common in the pronunciation of the Japanese language. In general, a high vowel (Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA) that appears in a low-pitched syllable between two voiceless consonants is devoiced and often deleted outright. However, unlike French or English, Japanese does not often show elision in writing. The process is purely phonetic and varies considerably depending on the dialect or level of formality. A few examples (slightly exaggerated; apostrophes added to indicate elision):

松下さんはいますか？ Matsushita-san wa imasu ka? ("Is Mr. Matsushita in?")
Pronounced: matsush'tasanwa imas'ka
Шаблон:IPA-ja
失礼します Shitsurei shimasu ("Excuse me")
Pronounced: sh'tsureishimas'
Шаблон:IPA-ja

Gender roles also influence elision in Japanese. It is considered masculine to elide, especially the final u of the polite verb forms (-masu, desu), but women are traditionally encouraged to do the opposite. However, excessive elision is generally associated with lower prestige, and inadequate elision is seen as overly fussy or old-fashioned. Some nonstandard dialects, such as Satsuma-ben, are known for their extensive elision.

It is common for successive o sounds to be reduced to a single o sound, as is frequently encountered when the particle を (wo/o) is followed by the beautifying or honorific お (o).

Latin

Latin poetry featured frequent elision, with syllables being dropped to fit the meter or for euphony. Words ending in vowels would elide with the following word if it started with a vowel or h; words ending with -m would also be elided in the same way (this is called ecthlipsis).[18][19] In writing, unlike in Greek, this would not be shown, with the normal spelling of the word represented. For instance, line 5 of Virgil's Aeneid is written as "Шаблон:Lang", even though it would be pronounced as "Шаблон:Lang".

Other examples of elision in Latin literature include:

In a study of elision in Latin poetry, J. Soubiran argues that "elision" would better be called "synaloepha", and the process understood as a merging of syllables, in most cases, rather than the loss of one.[22]

Malayalam

Dropping sounds in connected speech by native speakers is very common in this language from Kerala, southern India. For example, entha becomes ntha and ippol becomes ippo.

Spanish

The change of Latin into the Romance languages included a significant amount of elision, especially syncope (loss of medial vowels). Spanish has these examples:

In addition, speakers often employ crasis or elision between two words to avoid a hiatus caused by vowels: the choice of which to use depends upon whether or not the vowels are identical. This is referred to as enlace or sinalefa, and is especially common in poetry and songs. It is not necessarily indicated in writing, but often is in hymn music. It can appear as a breve below or an underscore between the adjacent words, e.g. "por-que ̮en-ton-ces" or "por-que_en-ton-ces".

A frequent informal use is the elision of Шаблон:Lang in the past participle suffix Шаблон:Lang, pronouncing Шаблон:Lang as Шаблон:Lang. The elision of Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang is considered even more informal, but both elisions common in Andalusian Spanish. Thus, the Andalusian Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang ("lament") has entered Standard Spanish as a term for a special feature of Flamenco singing. Similar distinctions are made with the words Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang as contracted versions of the literal translations for dancer and singer exclusively used for Flamenco, compared to the Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang of standard Spanish. The perceived vulgarity of the silent Шаблон:Lang may lead to hypercorrections like *Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang (cod) or *Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang.[23]

Tamil

Tamil has a set of rules for elision. They are categorised into classes based on the phoneme where elision occurs:

Class name Phoneme
Kutriyalukaram u
Kutriyalikaram i
Aiykaarakkurukkam ai
Oukaarakkurukkam au
Aaythakkurukkam the special character akh
Makarakkurukkam m

Urdu

In Pakistan, elision has become very common in speech. Commonly used words have single consonants or syllables removed in casual speech and it is becoming more acceptable in formal settings due to an increasing understandability and use. Although not seen when writing in the Urdu script (Nastaleeq), it is often seen in Roman Urdu (Latin alphabet) as the latter is more similar to vernacular Urdu. Most elisions occur by removing a vowel or the consonant /h/ or a combination of the two. Some widely-used examples are:

Elision Original Original (Urdu) Translation
Paṛo Paṛho Шаблон:Nq Study
Ray Rahay Шаблон:Nq Remain/(Present Participle)
Theekay Theek Hai Шаблон:Nowrap Alright/Okay
May Main Шаблон:Nq I/Me
Ay Hai Шаблон:Nq Is
Khamakha Khawa Makhwa Шаблон:Nq Gratuitously

(The difference between the elision May and the original word Main is the lack of nasalization at the end in the former.)

In sentences, they may appear as:

Kya tum paṛ ray o? ("Are you studying?") instead of "Kya tum paṛh rahay ho?"

Variations are also common where some individuals may prefer to pronounce a complete word such as "paṛh" while shortening the rest, depending on the preference of the person, their dialect, or their accent.

Welsh

Elision is a major feature of Welsh, found commonly in verb forms, such as in the following examples:

Elision of word-final Шаблон:Lang is almost always found in spoken Welsh to the point where the words are spelt with optional final Шаблон:Lang in words like Шаблон:Lang and has been eradicated from the inflected prepositions: Шаблон:Lang, not *Шаблон:Lang - 'on me', etc. These always retain their final Шаблон:Lang in the literary register, however.

Welsh also displays elision of initial syllables in singular/plural or collective/singulative pairs where the plural or singulative becomes longer than two syllables. This, however, is now restricted to specific nouns and is not productive. E.g. Шаблон:Lang - 'sock / socks' where the initial Шаблон:Lang has been lost in the plural; Шаблон:Lang - 'birds / a bird' where the initial Шаблон:Lang has been lost in the singulative.

Related areas

Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

References

Шаблон:Reflist

General references

External links

Шаблон:Wiktionary

Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Шаблон:Cite book
  13. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  21. ↑ 21,0 21,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
  22. ↑ Soubiran, J. (1966). Шаблон:Lang (Paris), pp. 55–91.
  23. ↑ Ultracorrección in the Diccionario panhispánico de dudas, 1st edition, October 2005, Real Academia Española.
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