Английская Википедия:Emakimono
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Italic title Шаблон:Redirect-distinguish
Illustrated handscrolls, Шаблон:Nihongo3, or Шаблон:Nihongo3 is an illustrated horizontal narration system of painted handscrolls that dates back to Nara-period (710–794 CE) Japan. Initially copying their much older Chinese counterparts in style, during the succeeding Heian (794–1185) and Kamakura periods (1185–1333), Japanese Шаблон:Transliteration developed their own distinct style. The term therefore refers only to Japanese painted narrative scrolls.
As in the Chinese and Korean scrolls, Шаблон:Transliteration combine calligraphy and illustrations and are painted, drawn or stamped on long rolls of paper or silk sometimes measuring several metres. The reader unwinds each scroll little by little, revealing the story as seen fit. Шаблон:Transliteration are therefore a narrative genre similar to the book, developing romantic or epic stories, or illustrating religious texts and legends. Fully anchored in the Шаблон:Transliteration style, these Japanese works are above all an everyday art, centered on the human being and the sensations conveyed by the artist.
Although the very first 8th-century Шаблон:Transliteration were copies of Chinese works, Шаблон:Transliteration of Japanese taste appeared from the 10th century in the Heian imperial court, especially among aristocratic ladies with refined and reclusive lives, who devoted themselves to the arts, poetry, painting, calligraphy and literature. However, no Шаблон:Transliteration remain from the Heian period, and the oldest masterpieces date back to the "golden age" of Шаблон:Transliteration in the 12th and 13th centuries. During this period, the techniques of composition became highly accomplished, and the subjects were even more varied than before, dealing with history, religion, romances, and other famous tales. The patrons who sponsored the creation of these Шаблон:Transliteration were above all the aristocrats and Buddhist temples. From the 14th century, the Шаблон:Transliteration genre became more marginal, giving way to new movements born mainly from Zen Buddhism.
Шаблон:Transliteration paintings mostly belong to the Шаблон:Transliteration style, characterized by its subjects from Japanese life and landscapes, the staging of the human, and an emphasis on rich colours and a decorative appearance. The format of the Шаблон:Transliteration, long scrolls of limited height, requires the solving of all kinds of composition problems: it is first necessary to make the transitions between the different scenes that accompany the story, to choose a point of view that reflects the narration, and to create a rhythm that best expresses the feelings and emotions of the moment. In general, there are thus two main categories of Шаблон:Transliteration: those which alternate the calligraphy and the image, each new painting illustrating the preceding text, and those which present continuous paintings, not interrupted by the text, where various technical measures allow the fluid transitions between the scenes.
Today, Шаблон:Transliteration offer a unique historical glimpse into the life and customs of Japanese people, of all social classes and all ages, during the early part of medieval times. Few of the scrolls have survived intact, and around 20 are protected as National Treasures of Japan.
Concept
The term Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration, often abbreviated as Шаблон:Transliteration, is made up of the kanji Шаблон:Nihongo3, Шаблон:Nihongo3 and Шаблон:Nihongo3.[1] The term refers to long scrolls of painted paper or silk, which range in length from under a metre to several metres long; some are reported as measuring up to Шаблон:Convert in length.Шаблон:Sfn The scrolls tell a story or a succession of anecdotes (such as literary chronicles or Buddhist parables), combining pictorial and narrative elements, the combination of which characterises the dominant art movements in Japan between the 12th and 14th centuries.Шаблон:Sfn
An Шаблон:Transliteration is read, according to the traditional method, sitting on a mat with the scroll placed on a low table or on the floor. The reader then unwinds with one hand while rewinding it with the other hand, from right to left (according to the writing direction of Japanese). In this way, only part of the story can be seen – about Шаблон:Convert, though more can be unrolled – and the artist creates a succession of images to construct the story.Шаблон:Sfn
Once the Шаблон:Transliteration has been read, the reader must rewind the scroll again in its original reading direction. The Шаблон:Transliteration is kept closed by a cord and stored alone or with other rolls in a box intended for this purpose, and which is sometimes decorated with elaborate patterns. An Шаблон:Transliteration can consist of several successive scrolls as required of the story – the Шаблон:Transliteration was made up of 48 scrolls, although the standard number typically falls between one and three.Шаблон:Sfn
An Шаблон:Transliteration is made up of two elements: the sections of calligraphic text known as Шаблон:Transliteration, and the sections of paintings referred to as Шаблон:Transliteration;Шаблон:Sfn their size, arrangement and number vary greatly, depending on the period and the artist. In Шаблон:Transliteration inspired by literature, the text occupies no less than two-thirds of the space, while other more popular works, such as the Шаблон:Transliteration, favour the image, sometimes to the point of making the text disappear. The scrolls have a limited height (on average between Шаблон:Cvt and Шаблон:Cvt), compared with their length (on average Шаблон:Cvt to Шаблон:Cvt),Шаблон:Sfn meaning that Шаблон:Transliteration are therefore limited to being read alone, historically by the aristocracy and members of the high clergy.Шаблон:Sfn
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Example of a complete scroll of an Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration (seventh scroll, 1299, Tokyo National Museum). Reading direction is from right to left. Traditionally, the reader never fully unwinds the roll, but unwinds it with one hand while rewinding it with the other, learning the story piecemeal.
History
Origins
Handscrolls are believed to have been invented in India before the 4th century CE. They were used for religious texts and entered China by the 1st century. Handscrolls were introduced to Japan centuries later through the spread of Buddhism. The earliest extant Japanese handscroll was created in the 8th century and focuses on the life of the Buddha.Шаблон:Sfn
The origins of Japanese handscrolls can be found in China and, to a lesser extent, in Korea, the main sources of Japanese artistic inspiration until modern times. Narrative art forms in China can be traced back to between the 3rd century CE under the Han dynasty and the 2nd century CE under the Zhou dynasty, the pottery of which was adorned with hunting scenes juxtaposed with movements.Шаблон:Sfn Paper was invented in China in about the 1st century CE, simplifying the writing on scrolls of laws or sutra, sometimes decorated. The first narrative scrolls arrived later; various masters showed interest in this medium, including Gu Kaizhi (345–406), who experimented with new techniques. Genre painting and Chinese characters, dominant in the scrolls up to the 10th century CE, remain little known to this day, because they were overshadowed by the famous landscape scrolls of the Song dynasty.Шаблон:Sfn
Relations with East Asia (mainly China and Korea) brought Chinese writing (kanji) to Japan by the 4th century, and Buddhism in the 6th century, together with interest in the apparently very effective bureaucracy of the mighty Chinese Empire. In the Nara period, the Japanese were inspired by the Tang dynasty:Шаблон:Sfn administration, architecture, dress customs or ceremonies. The exchanges between China and Japan were also fruitful for the arts, mainly religious arts, and the artists of the Japanese archipelago were eager to copy and appropriate continental techniques. In that context, experts assume that the first Chinese painted scrolls arrived on the islands around the 6th century CE, and probably correspond to illustrated sutra. Thus, the oldest known Japanese narrative painted scroll (or Шаблон:Transliteration) dates from the 7th century to the Nara period: the Шаблон:Interlanguage link, which traces the life of the Gautama Buddha, founder of the Buddhist religion, until his Illumination.Шаблон:Sfn Still naive in style (Six Dynasties and early Tang dynasty) with the paintings arranged in friezes above the text, it is very likely a copy of an older Chinese model, several versions of which have been identified.[2]Шаблон:Sfn Although subsequent classical Шаблон:Transliteration feature a very different style from that of this work, it foreshadows the golden age of the movement that came four centuries later, from the 12th century CE onwards.Шаблон:Sfn
Heian period: genesis of the art
Arts and literature, birth of a national aesthetic
The Heian period appears today as a peak of Japanese civilization via the culture of the emperor's court, although intrigue and disinterest in things of the state resulted in the Genpei War.[3] This perception arises from the aesthetics and the codified and refined art of living that developed at the Heian court, as well as a certain restraint and melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things (a state of mind referred to as Шаблон:Transliteration in Japanese).[4] Furthermore, the rupture of relations with China until the 9th century, due to disorders related to the collapse of the glorious Tang dynasty, promoted what Miyeko Murase has described as the "emergence of national taste" as a truly Japanese culture departed for the first time from Chinese influence since the early Kofun period.Шаблон:Sfn This development was first observed in the literature of the Heian women: unlike the men, who studied Chinese writing from a young age, the women adopted a new syllabary, Шаблон:Transliteration, which was simpler and more consistent with the phonetics of Japanese.[5] Heian period novels (Шаблон:Transliteration) and diaries (Шаблон:Transliteration) recorded intimate details about life, love affairs and intrigues at court as they developed; the best known of these is the radical Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, lady-in-waiting of the 10th century Imperial Court.Шаблон:Sfn[6]
The beginnings of the Japanese-inspired Heian period painting technique, retrospectively named Шаблон:Transliteration, can be found initially in some aspects of Buddhist painting of the new esoteric Tendai and Shingon sects, then more strongly in Pure Land Buddhism (Шаблон:Transliteration); after a phase when Chinese techniques were copied, the art of the Japanese archipelago became progressively more delicate, lyrical, decorative with less powerful but more colorful compositions.Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, it was especially in secular art that the nascent Шаблон:Transliteration was felt most strongly;[7] its origins went back to the sliding partitions and screens of the Heian Imperial Palace, covered with paintings on paper or silk, the themes of which were chosen from Шаблон:Transliteration court poetry, annual rites, seasons or the famous lives and landscapes of the archipelago (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn
This secular art then spread among the nobles, especially the ladies interested in the illustration of novels, and seems to have become prevalent early in the 10th century. As with religious painting, the themes of Japanese life, appreciated by the nobles, did not fit well with painting of Chinese sensibility, so much so that court artists developed to a certain extent a new national technique which appeared to be fashionable in the 11th century,Шаблон:Sfn for example in the seasonal landscapes of the panel paintings in the Шаблон:Nihongo or Amida Hall at the Byōdō-in temple, a masterpiece of primitive Шаблон:Transliteration of the early 11th century.[8]
Experts believe that Шаблон:Transliteration illustrations of novels and painted narrative scrolls, or Шаблон:Transliteration, developed in the vein of this secular art, linked to literature and poetry.Шаблон:Sfn The painting technique lent itself fully to the artistic tastes of the court in the 11th century, inclined to an emotional, melancholic and refined representation of relations within the palace, and formed a pictorial vector very suited to the narrative.[7] Even though they are mentioned in the antique texts, no Шаблон:Transliteration of the early Heian period (9th and 10th centuries) remains extant today;Шаблон:Sfn the oldest Шаблон:Transliteration illustrating a novel mentioned in period sources is that of the Шаблон:Transliteration, offered to the Empress between 872 and 907.Шаблон:Sfn
However, the stylistic mastery of later works (from the 12th century) leads most experts to believe that the "classical" art of Шаблон:Transliteration grew during this period from the 10th century, first appearing in illustrations in novels or diaries produced by the ladies of the court.Шаблон:Sfn In addition, the initial themes remained close to Шаблон:Transliteration poetry (seasons, Buddhism, nature and other themes).Шаблон:Sfn Therefore, the slow maturation of the movement of Шаблон:Transliteration was closely linked to the emergence of Japanese culture and literature, as well as to the interest of courtesans soon joined by professional painters from palace workshops (Шаблон:Transliteration) or temples, who created a more "professional" and successful technique.Шаблон:Sfn The art historians consider that the composition and painting techniques they see in the masterpieces of the late Heian period (second half of the 12th century) were already very mature.Шаблон:Sfn
Fujiwara era: classical masterpieces
If almost all Шаблон:Transliteration belong to the genre of Шаблон:Transliteration, several sub-genres stand out within this style, including in the Heian period Шаблон:Transliteration ("women's painting") and Шаблон:Transliteration ("men's painting").Шаблон:Sfn Several classic scrolls of each genre perfectly represent these pictorial movements.
First, the Шаблон:Transliteration (designed between around 1120 and 1140), illustrating the famous eponymous novel, narrates the political and amorous intrigues of Prince Hikaru Genji;Шаблон:Sfn the rich and opaque colors affixed over the entire surface of the paper (Шаблон:Transliteration method), the intimacy and melancholy of the composition and finally the illustration of the emotional peaks of the novel taking place only inside the Imperial Palace are characteristics of the Шаблон:Transliteration subgenre of Шаблон:Transliteration, reserved for court narratives usually written by aristocratic ladies.Шаблон:Sfn In that scroll, each painting illustrates a key episode of the novel and is followed by a calligraphic extract on paper richly decorated with gold and silver powder.Шаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Transliteration already presents the composition techniques specific to the art of Шаблон:Transliteration: an oblique point of view, the movement of the eyes guided by long diagonals from the top right to the bottom left, and even the removal of the roofs to represent the interior of buildings (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn A second notable example of the Шаблон:Transliteration paintings in the Heian period is the Шаблон:Transliteration, which appears to be very similar to the Шаблон:Transliteration, but presents softer and more decorative paintings giving pride of place to the representation of nature subtly emphasising the feelings of the characters.Шаблон:Sfn[9]
In contrast with court paintings inspired by women's novels (Шаблон:Transliteration) there are other scrolls inspired by themes such as the daily lives of the people, historical chronicles, and the biographies of famous monks; ultimately, a style of Шаблон:Transliteration depicting matters outside the palace and called Шаблон:Transliteration ("men's painting").Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Transliteration (middle of the 12th century), with dynamic and free lines, light colors and a decidedly popular and humorous tone, perfectly illustrate this movement, not hesitating to depict the life of the Japanese people in its most insignificant details.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Here, the color is applied only in light touches that leave the paper bare, as the supple and free line dominates the composition, unlike the constructed paintings of the court.Шаблон:Sfn In addition, the text occupies very limited space, the artist painting rather long scenes without fixed limits.Шаблон:Sfn
Two other masterpieces emerged into the light of day during the second half of the 12th century.Шаблон:Sfn
First, the Шаблон:Transliteration forms a monochrome sketch in ink gently caricaturing the customs of Buddhist monks, where the spontaneity of touch stands out.Шаблон:Sfn Secondly, the Шаблон:Transliteration tells of a political conspiracy in the year 866 by offering a surprising mixture of the two genres Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration, with free lines and sometimes light, sometimes rich and opaque colors; this meeting of genres foreshadows the style that dominated a few decades later, during the Kamakura period.Шаблон:Sfn
While the authority of the court rapidly declined, the end of the Heian period (in 1185) was marked by the advent of the provincial lords (in particular, the Taira and the Minamoto), who acquired great power at the top of the state.Шаблон:Sfn Exploiting the unrest associated with the Genpei War, which provided fertile ground for religious proselytism, the six realms (or Шаблон:Interlanguage link) Buddhist paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration) – such as the Hell Scroll or the two versions of the Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration paintings – aimed to frighten the faithful with horror scenes.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Retracing the evolution of Шаблон:Transliteration remains difficult, due to the few works that have survived. However, the obvious mastery of the classical scrolls of the end of the Heian period testifies to at least a century of maturation and pictorial research. These foundations permitted the Шаблон:Transliteration artists of the ensuing Kamakura period to engage in sustained production in all of the themes. Шаблон:Clear left
Kamakura period: the golden age of Шаблон:Transliteration
The era covering the end of the Heian period and much of the Kamakura period, or the 12th and 13th centuries, is commonly described by art historians as "the golden age" of the art of Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn[10] Under the impetus of the new warrior class in power, and the new Buddhist sects, production was indeed very sustained and the themes and techniques more varied than before.Шаблон:Sfn
The Шаблон:Transliteration style of the time was characterized by two aspects: the synthesis of the genres of Шаблон:Transliteration, and realism. Initially, the evolution marked previously by the Шаблон:Transliteration (very late Heian era) was spreading very widely due to the importance given both to the freedom of brush strokes and the lightness of the tones (Шаблон:Transliteration), as well as bright colors rendered by thick pigments for certain elements of the scenes (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn However, the very refined appearance of the court paintings later gave way to more dynamic and popular works, at least in relation to the theme, in the manner of the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn For example, the Шаблон:Transliteration recounts the life and death of Sugawara no Michizane, Minister in the 9th century and tragic figure in Japanese history, revered in the manner of a god (Шаблон:Transliteration). The rich colours, the tense contours, the search for movement and the very realistic details of the faces well illustrate this mixture of styles,Шаблон:Sfn especially as the paintings drew their inspiration from both Buddhism and Shinto.Шаблон:Sfn
The realistic trends that were in vogue in Kamakura art, perfectly embodied by sculpture,Шаблон:Sfn were exposed in the majority of the Kamakura Шаблон:Transliteration; indeed, the Шаблон:Transliteration shogunate system held power over Japan, and the refined and codified art of the court gave way to more fluidity and dynamism.Шаблон:Sfn The greater simplicity advocated in the arts led to a more realistic and human representation (anger, pain or size).Шаблон:Sfn If the activity related to religion was prolific, then so too were the orders of the Шаблон:Transliteration (noble warriors). Several Шаблон:Transliteration of historical or military chronicles are among the most famous, notably the Шаблон:Transliteration (no longer extant) and the Шаблон:Transliteration;Шаблон:Sfn of the latter, the scroll kept at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston remains highly regarded for its mastery of composition (which reaches a crescendo at the dramatic climax of the scroll, i.e. the burning of the palace and the bloody battle between foot soldiers), and for its contribution to present day understanding of Japanese medieval weapons and armour.Шаблон:Sfn Akiyama Terukazu describes it as "a masterpiece on the subject of the world's military."Шаблон:Sfn In the same spirit, a noble warrior had the Шаблон:Transliteration designed to recount his military exploits during the Mongol invasions of Japan.Шаблон:Sfn Kamakura art particularly flourished in relation to realistic portraiture (Шаблон:Transliteration); if the characters in the Шаблон:Transliteration therefore evolved towards greater pictorial realism, some, such as the Шаблон:Transliteration, or the Шаблон:Transliteration attributed to Fujiwara no Nobuzane, directly present portrait galleries according to the iconographic techniques of the time.[11]Шаблон:Sfn
A similar change was felt in religion as the esoteric Buddhist sects of the Heian era (Tendai and Shingon) gave way to Pure Land Buddhism (Шаблон:Transliteration), which primarily addressed the people by preaching simple practices of devotion to the Amida Buddha. These very active sects used Шаблон:Transliteration intensively during the 13th and 14th centuries to illustrate and disseminate their doctrines.Шаблон:Sfn
Several religious practices influenced the Kamakura Шаблон:Transliteration: notably, public sermons and picture explaining sessions (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Transliteration) led the artists to use scrolls of larger size than usual, and to represent the protagonists of the story in a somewhat disproportionate way compared with Шаблон:Transliteration of the standard sizes, to enable those protagonists to be seen from a distance, in a typically Japanese non-realistic perspective (such as the Шаблон:Transliteration). The religious Шаблон:Transliteration of the Kamakura period focus on the foundation of the temples, or the lives of famous monks.[10] During that period, many of the religious institutions commissioned the workshops of painters (often monk-painters) to create Шаблон:Transliteration recounting their foundation, or the biography of the founding monk. Among the best-known works on such themes are the illustrated biographies of Ippen, Шаблон:Interlanguage link, Шаблон:Interlanguage link and Xuanzang, as well as the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
The Ippen biography, painted by a monk, remains remarkable for its influences, so far rare, from the Song dynasty (via the wash technique) and the Tang dynasty (the Шаблон:Transliteration style), as well as by its very precise representations of forts in many Japanese landscapes.[12] As for the Шаблон:Transliteration, it addresses the declining aristocracy in idealising the figure of the monk aesthete Saigyō by the beauty of its landscapes and its calligraphic poetry.[13]
Towards the middle of the Kamakura period, there was a revival of interest in the Heian court, which already appeared to be a peak of Japanese civilization, and its refined culture.Шаблон:Sfn Thus the Шаблон:Transliteration, which traces the life and intrigues of Murasaki Shikibu, author of The Tale of Genji (10th century), largely reflects the painting techniques of the time, notably the Шаблон:Transliteration, but in a more decorative and extroverted style.Шаблон:Sfn Other works followed that trend, such as Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Clear left
Muromachi period: decline and Шаблон:Transliteration
By the end of the Kamakura period, the art of Шаблон:Transliteration was already losing its importance. Experts note that, on the one hand, Шаблон:Transliteration had become less inspired, marked by an extreme aesthetic mannerism (such as the exaggerated use of gold and silver powder) with a composition more technical than creative; the tendency to multiply the scenes in a fixed style can be seen in the Шаблон:Transliteration (the longest known Шаблон:Transliteration, with 48 scrolls, completed in 1307), the Шаблон:Transliteration (1309) and the Шаблон:Transliteration (16th century).Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On the other hand, the innovative and more spiritual influences of Chinese Song art, deeply rooted in spirituality and Zen Buddhism, initiated the dominant artistic movement of wash (ink or monochromatic painting in water, Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration in Japanese) in the ensuing Muromachi period, guided by such famous artists as Tenshō Shūbun or Sesshū Tōyō.Шаблон:Sfn
A professional current was nevertheless maintained by the Tosa school: the only one still to claim the Шаблон:Transliteration, it produced many Шаблон:Transliteration to the order of the court or the temples (this school of painters led the imperial Шаблон:Transliteration until the 18th century). Tosa Mitsunobu notably produced several works on the foundation of temples: the Шаблон:Transliteration (1517), a scroll of the Шаблон:Transliteration (1497), the Шаблон:Transliteration (1487) or a version of the Шаблон:Transliteration (1503); he paid great attention to details and colours, despite a common composition.[14] In a more general way, the illustration of novels in the classic Шаблон:Transliteration style (such as the many versions of the Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration) persisted during late medieval times.[14]
If Шаблон:Transliteration therefore ceased to be the dominant artistic media in Japan since the end of the Kamakura period, it is in the illustration movement of Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Transliteration meaning "to tell stories") that Шаблон:Transliteration developed a new popular vigour in the 15th and 16th centuries (the Muromachi period); the term Шаблон:Transliteration (literally, "the book of illustrations of Nara") sometimes designated them in a controversial way (because they were anachronistic and combined books with scrolls), or more precisely as Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration.[15] These are small, symbolic and funny tales, intended to pass the time focusing on mythology, folklore, legends, religious beliefs or even contemporary society.[15] This particular form of Шаблон:Transliteration dates back to Heian times, but it was under Muromachi that it gained real popularity.Шаблон:Sfn
The relative popularity of Шаблон:Transliteration seems to have stemmed from a burgeoning lack of enthusiasm for hectic or religious stories; the people had become more responsive to themes of dreams, laughter and the supernatural (a number of Шаблон:Transliteration depict all sorts of Шаблон:Transliteration and folk creatures), as well as social caricatures and popular novels. Among the preserved examples are genre paintings such as Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration,Шаблон:Sfn or supernatural Buddhist tales such as the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Efn From the point of view of art historians, the creativity of classical scrolls is felt even less in Шаблон:Transliteration, because even though the composition is similar, the lack of harmony of colors and the overloaded appearance are detrimental; it seems that the production is often the work of amateurs.[16] However, a field of study of Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration pictorial style exists on the fringes and stands out from the framework of Шаблон:Transliteration.[15]
Various other artists, notably Tawaraya Sōtatsu and Yosa Buson, were still interested in the narrative scroll until around the 17th century.Шаблон:Sfn The Kanō school used narrative scrolls in the same way; Kanō Tan'yū realised several scrolls on the Tokugawa battles, particularly that of Sekigahara in his Шаблон:Transliteration, where he was inspired in places by the Шаблон:Transliteration (13th century).[17]
Features and production
Themes and genres
In essence, an Шаблон:Transliteration is a narrative system (like a book) that requires the construction of a story, so the composition must be based on the transitions from scene to scene until the final denouement.
Шаблон:Transliteration were initially strongly influenced by China, as were the Japanese arts of the time; the Шаблон:Interlanguage link incorporates many of the naive, simple styles of the Tang dynasty, although dissonances can be discerned, especially in relation to colours.[18] From the Heian period onwards, Шаблон:Transliteration came to be dissociated from China, mainly in their themes. Chinese scrolls were intended mainly to illustrate the transcendent principles of Buddhism and the serenity of the landscapes, suggesting the grandeur and the spirituality. The Japanese, on the other hand, had refocused their scrolls on everyday life and man, conveying drama, humour and feelings. Thus, Шаблон:Transliteration began to be inspired by literature, poetry, nature and especially everyday life; in short, they formed an intimate art, sometimes in opposition to the search for Chinese spiritual greatness.
The first Japanese themes in the Heian period were very closely linked to Шаблон:Transliteration literature and poetry: paintings of the seasons, the annual calendar of ceremonies, the countryside and finally the famous landscapes of the Japanese archipelago (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn Subsequently, the Kamakura warriors and the new Pure Land Buddhist sects diversified the subjects even more widely. Despite the wide range of Шаблон:Transliteration themes, specialists like to categorise them, both in substance and in form. An effective method of differentiating Шаблон:Transliteration comes back to the study of the subjects by referring to the canons of the time. The categorisation proposed by Okudaira and Fukui thus distinguishes between secular and religious paintings:Шаблон:Sfn
Secular paintings
- Court novels and diaries (Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration) dealing with romantic tales, life at court or historical chronicles;
- Popular legends (Шаблон:Transliteration);
- Military accounts (Шаблон:Transliteration);
- Scrolls on Шаблон:Transliteration poets;
- Reports on the rites and ceremonies celebrated in a very codified and rigid way throughout the year;
- Realistic paintings and portraits (Шаблон:Transliteration);
- Шаблон:Transliteration, traditional or fantastic tales popular in the 14th century.
Religious paintings
- Illustrations of sutras or religious doctrines (Шаблон:Transliteration);
- Illustrated biography of a prominent Buddhist monk or priest (Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration);
- Paintings of the antecedents of a temple (Шаблон:Transliteration);
- The Шаблон:Transliteration, a collection of Buddhist anecdotes.
A third category covers more heterogeneous works, mixing religion and narration or religion and popular humour.
The artists and their audience
The authors of Шаблон:Transliteration are most often unknown nowadays and it remains risky to speculate as to the names of the "masters" of Шаблон:Transliteration. Moreover, a scroll can be the fruit of collaboration by several artists; some techniques such as Шаблон:Transliteration even naturally incline to such collaboration. Art historians are more interested in determining the social and artistic environment of painters: amateurs or professionals, at court or in temples, aristocrats or of modest birth.Шаблон:Sfn
In the first place, amateur painters, perhaps the initiators of the classical Шаблон:Transliteration, are to be found at the emperor's court in Heian, among the aristocrats versed in the various arts. Period sources mention in particular painting competitions (Шаблон:Transliteration) where the nobles competed around a common theme from a poem, as described by Murasaki Shikibu in The Tale of Genji. Their work seems to focus more on the illustration of novels (Шаблон:Transliteration) and diaries (Шаблон:Transliteration), rather feminine literature of the court. Monks were also able to produce paintings without any patronage.
Secondly, in medieval Japan there were Шаблон:Nihongo; during the Kamakura period, professional production dominated greatly, and several categories of workshops were distinguished: those officially attached to the palace (Шаблон:Transliteration), those attached to the great temples and shrines (Шаблон:Transliteration), or finally those hosted by a few senior figures.Шаблон:Sfn[19] The study of certain colophons and period texts makes it possible to associate many Шаблон:Transliteration with these professional workshops, and even sometimes to understand how they function.
When produced by the temple workshops, Шаблон:Transliteration were intended mainly as proselytism, or to disseminate a doctrine, or even as an act of faith, because copying illustrated sutras must allow communion with the deities (a theory even accredits the idea that the Шаблон:Transliteration would have aimed to pacify evil spirits).Шаблон:Sfn Proselytising, favoured by the emergence of the Pure Land Buddhist sects during the Kamakura era, changed the methods of Шаблон:Transliteration production, because works of proselytism were intended to be copied and disseminated widely in many associated temples, explaining the large number of more or less similar copies on the lives of great monks and the founding of the important temples.[20]
Various historians emphasise the use of Шаблон:Transliteration in sessions of Шаблон:Nihongo, during which a learned monk detailed the contents of the scrolls to a popular audience. Specialists thus explicate the unusually large dimensions of the different versions of the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration. As for the workshops of the court, they satisfied the orders of the palace, whether for the illustration of novels or historical chronicles, such as the Шаблон:Transliteration. A form of exploitation of the story could also motivate the sponsor: for example, Шаблон:Transliteration were produced for the Minamoto clan (winner of the Genpei War), and the Шаблон:Transliteration was created to extol the deeds of a samurai in search of recognition from the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn These works were, it seems, intended to be read by nobles. Nevertheless, Seckel and Hasé assert that the separation between the secular and the religious remains unclear and undoubtedly does not correspond to an explicit practice: thus, the aristocrats regularly ordered Шаблон:Transliteration to offer them to a temple, and the religious scrolls do not refrain from representing popular things. So, for example, the Шаблон:Transliteration presents a rich overview of medieval civilization.Шаблон:Sfn
Colophons and comparative studies sometimes allow for the deduction of the name of the artist of an Шаблон:Transliteration: for example, the monk Шаблон:Interlanguage link signed the Шаблон:Transliteration, historians designate Шаблон:Interlanguage link as the author of the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration, or Шаблон:Interlanguage link for part of the Шаблон:Transliteration. Nevertheless, the life of these artists remains poorly known, at most they seem to be of noble extraction.Шаблон:Sfn Such a background is particularly implied by the always very precise depictions in Шаблон:Transliteration of the imperial palace (interior architecture, clothing and rituals) or official bodies (notably the Шаблон:Nihongo). The Шаблон:Transliteration illustrates that point well, as the precision of both religious and aristocratic motifs suggests that the painter is close to those two worlds.Шаблон:Sfn
Perhaps a more famous artist is Fujiwara no Nobuzane, aristocrat of the Fujiwara clan and author of the Шаблон:Transliteration, as well as various suites of realistic portraits (Шаблон:Nihongo, a school he founded in honour of his father Fujiwara no Takanobu). Among the temple workshops, it is known that the Kōzan-ji workshop was particularly prolific, under the leadership of the monk Myōe, a great scholar who brought in many works from Song dynasty China. Thus, the Jōnin brushstrokes on the Шаблон:Transliteration or the portrait of Myōe reveal the first Song influences in Japanese painting. However, the crucial lack of information and documents on these rare known artists leads Japanese art historians rather to identify styles, workshops, and schools of production.Шаблон:Sfn
From the 14th century, the Шаблон:Nihongo, and even for a time the Шаблон:Transliteration of the Шаблон:Transliteration, were headed by the Tosa school, which, as mentioned above, continued Шаблон:Transliteration painting and the manufacture of Шаблон:Transliteration despite the decline of the genre. The Tosa school artists are much better known; Tosa Mitsunobu, for example, produced a large number of works commissioned by temples (including the Шаблон:Transliteration) or nobles (including the Шаблон:Transliteration). The competing Kanō school also offered a such few pieces, on command: art historians have shown strong similarities between the Шаблон:Transliteration (12th century) and the Шаблон:Transliteration (17th century) by Kanō Tan'yū of the Kanō school, probably to suggest a link between the Minamoto and Tokugawa clans, members of which were, respectively, the first and last shoguns who ruled all of Japan.[21]
Materials and manufacture
The preferred support medium for Шаблон:Transliteration is paper, and to a lesser extent silk; both originate from China, although Japanese paper (Шаблон:Transliteration) is generally of a more solid texture and less delicate than Chinese paper, as the fibres are longer). The paper is traditionally made with the help of women of the Japanese archipelago.Шаблон:Sfn
The most famous colors are taken from mineral pigments: for example azurite for blue, vermilion for red, realgar for yellow, malachite for green, amongst others. These thick pigments, named Шаблон:Transliteration in Japanese, are not soluble in water and require a thick binder, generally an animal glue;[22] the amount of glue required depends on how finely the pigments have been ground.Шаблон:Sfn
As Шаблон:Transliteration are intended to be rolled up, the colours must be applied to them in a thin, flat layer in order to avoid any cracking in the medium term, which limits the use of patterns (reliefs) predominant in Western painting.Шаблон:Sfn As for the ink, also invented in China around the 1st century CE, it results from a simple mixture of binder and wood smoke, the dosage of which depends on the manufacturer. Essential for calligraphy, it is also important in Asian pictorial arts where the line often takes precedence; Japanese artists apply it with a brush, varying the thickness of the line and the dilution of the ink to produce a colour from a dark black to a pale gray strongly absorbed by the paper.Шаблон:Sfn
Scrolls of paper or tissue remain relatively fragile, in particular after the application of paint. Шаблон:Transliteration are therefore lined with one or more layers of strong paper, in a very similar way to Шаблон:Transliteration (Japanese hanging scrolls): the painted paper or silk is stretched, glued onto the lining, and then dried and brushed, normally by a specialized craftsman, known as a Шаблон:Transliteration (literally, 'master in sutra').Шаблон:Sfn The long format of Шаблон:Transliteration poses specific problems: generally, sheets of painted paper or silk Шаблон:Convert long are lined separately, then assembled using strips of long-fibre Japanese paper, known for its strength.Шаблон:Sfn The lining process simply requires the application of an animal glue which, as it dries, also allows the painted paper or silk to be properly stretched. Assembly of the Шаблон:Transliteration is finalised by the selection of the Шаблон:Nihongo, which is quite thin, and the connection of the Шаблон:Nihongo, which protects the work once it is rolled up with a Шаблон:Nihongo; for the most precious pieces painted with gold and silver powder, a further Шаблон:Nihongo is often made of silk and decorated on the inside.Шаблон:Sfn[23]
Artistic characteristics
General
Шаблон:Main The currents and techniques of Шаблон:Transliteration art are intimately linked and most often part of the Шаблон:Transliteration, readily opposed at the beginning to Chinese-style paintings, known as Шаблон:Transliteration. Шаблон:Transliteration, a colorful and decorative everyday art, strongly typifies the output of the time.Шаблон:Sfn Initially, Шаблон:Transliteration mainly designated works with Japanese themes, notably court life, ceremonies or archipelago landscapes, in opposition to the hitherto dominant Chinese scholarly themes, especially during the Nara period.Шаблон:Sfn The documents of the 9th century mention, for example, the paintings on sliding walls and screens of the then Imperial Palace, which illustrate Шаблон:Transliteration poems.Шаблон:Sfn Subsequently, the term Шаблон:Transliteration referred more generally to all of the Japanese style paintings created in the 9th century that expressed the sensitivity and character of the people of the archipelago, including those extending beyond the earlier themes.Шаблон:Sfn Miyeko Murase thus speaks of "the emergence of national taste".Шаблон:Sfn
Different currents of paintings are part of the Шаблон:Transliteration according to the times (about the 10th and 14th centuries), and are found in Шаблон:Transliteration. The style, composition and technique vary greatly, but it is possible to identify major principles. Thus, in relation to style, the Heian period produced a contrast between refined court painting and dynamic painting of subjects outside the court, while the Kamakura period saw a synthesis of the two approaches and the contribution of new realistic influences of the Chinese wash paintings of the Song dynasty. In relation to composition, the artists could alternate calligraphy and painting so as to illustrate only the most striking moments of the story, or else create long painted sections where several scenes blended together and flowed smoothly. Finally, in relation to technique, the classification of Шаблон:Transliteration, although complex, allows for two approaches to be identified: paintings favoring colour, and those favoring line for the purpose of dynamism.
The particular format of the Шаблон:Transliteration, long strips of paintings without fixed limits, requires solving a number of compositional problems in order to maintain the ease and clarity of the narrative, and which have given rise to a coherent art form over several centuries. In summary, according to E. Saint-Marc: "We had to build a vocabulary, a syntax, solve a whole series of technical problems, invent a discipline that is both literary and plastic, an aesthetic mode which finds its conventions [...] in turn invented and modelled, frozen by use, then remodelled, to make it an instrument of refined expression."Шаблон:Sfn
Styles and techniques
Overview of the Heian period Шаблон:Transliteration styles
Specialists like to distinguish between two currents in the Шаблон:Transliteration, and thus in the Шаблон:Transliteration, of the Heian period, namely the Шаблон:Transliteration ("painting of woman", Шаблон:Transliteration meaning "woman"), and Шаблон:Transliteration ("painting of man", Шаблон:Transliteration meaning "man"). In the Heian period, these two currents of Шаблон:Transliteration also echoed the mysteries and the seclusion of the Imperial Court: the Шаблон:Transliteration style thus told what happened inside the court, and the Шаблон:Transliteration style spoke of happenings in the populace outside.Шаблон:Sfn
Court style: Шаблон:Transliteration
Шаблон:Transliteration fully transcribed the lyrical and refined aesthetic of the court, which was characterized by a certain restraint, introspection and the expression of feelings, bringing together above all works inspired by "romantic" literature such as the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn The dominant impression of this genre is expressed in Japanese by the term Шаблон:Transliteration, a kind of fleeting melancholy born from the feeling of the impermanence of things. These works mainly adopted the so-called Шаблон:Transliteration (constructed painting) technique, with rich and opaque colours. In Шаблон:Transliteration of the 13th century, in which the Шаблон:Transliteration style was brought up-to-date, the same technique was used but in a sometimes less complete manner, the colours more directly expressing feelings and the artists using a more decorative aesthetic, such as with the very important use of gold dust in the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn
A characteristic element of the Шаблон:Transliteration resides in the drawing of the faces, very impersonal, that specialists often compare to Noh masks. Indeed, according to the Шаблон:Transliteration technique, two or three lines were enough to represent the eyes and the nose in a stylized way;Шаблон:Sfn E. Grilli notes the melancholy of this approach.Шаблон:Sfn The desired effect is still uncertain, but probably reflects the great restraint of feelings and personalities in the palace, or even allows readers to identify more easily with the characters.Шаблон:Sfn In some Шаблон:Transliteration of the Heian period, the artists rather expressed the feelings or the passions in the positions as well as in the pleats and folds of the clothes, in harmony with the mood of the moment.Шаблон:Sfn
- Шаблон:Transliteration paintings
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Шаблон:Transliteration painting, with vivid tones typical of primary Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Шаблон:Transliteration painting in lighter tones, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Шаблон:Transliteration painting, Шаблон:Transliteration, 14th century
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Court scene illustrating Шаблон:Transliteration, a technique of inexpressive and impersonal representation of faces, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
Popular style: Шаблон:Transliteration
The current of the Шаблон:Transliteration style was freer and more lively than Шаблон:Transliteration, representing battles, historical chronicles, epics and religious legends by favouring long illustrations over calligraphy, as in the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn The style was based on soft lines drawn freely by the artist in ink, unlike Шаблон:Transliteration constructed paintings, to favour the impression of movement.Шаблон:Sfn The colours generally appeared more muted and left the paper bare in places.Шаблон:Sfn
If the term Шаблон:Transliteration is well attested in the texts of the time, and seems to come from the illustrations of novels by the ladies of the court from the 10th century, the origins of the Шаблон:Transliteration are more obscure: they arise a priori from the interest of the nobles in Japanese provincial life from the 11th century, as well as from local folk legends; moreover, several very detailed scenes from the Шаблон:Transliteration clearly show that its author can only have been a palace regular, aristocrat or monk.Шаблон:Sfn In any case, there are still several collections of these folk tales of the time, such as the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn
Unlike the court paintings, the more spontaneous scrolls such as the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration display much more realism in the drawing of the characters, and depict, amongst other themes, humour and burlesque, with people's feelings (such as anger, joy and fear) expressed more spontaneously and directly.Шаблон:Sfn
- Шаблон:Transliteration paintings
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Popular scene in which the lines take precedence over very light colors, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Another painting of a popular subject favouring the lines, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Expressive painting of a communal crowd, Шаблон:Transliteration, late 12th century
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Humorous scene depicting a doctor's mistake, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Battle scene depicting one of the Mongol invasions of Japan, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
Kamakura period realist painting
During the Kamakura period, the two currents of Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Transliteration and Шаблон:Transliteration) mingled and gave birth to works that are both dynamic and vividly coloured, in the manner of the Шаблон:Transliteration. Furthermore, the majority of Шаблон:Transliteration also transcribed the realistic tendencies of the time, according to the tastes of the warriors in power. The Шаблон:Transliteration thus shows in great detail the weapons, armour and uniforms of the soldiers, and the Шаблон:Transliteration individually portrays the more than two hundred panicked figures who appear on the section depicting the fire at the door.
Realistic painting is best displayed in the portraits known as Шаблон:Transliteration, a movement initiated by Fujiwara no Takanobu and his son Fujiwara no Nobuzane. These two artists and their descendants produced a number of Шаблон:Transliteration of a particular genre: they were suites of portraits of famous people made in a rather similar style, with almost geometric simplicity of clothing, and extreme realism of the face.Шаблон:Sfn The essence of the Шаблон:Transliteration was really to capture the intimate personality of the subject with great economy.[24]
Among the most famous Шаблон:Transliteration scrolls are the Шаблон:Transliteration, composed of 131 portraits of emperors, governors, ministers and senior courtiers (by Шаблон:Interlanguage link and Шаблон:Interlanguage link, 14th century), and the Шаблон:Transliteration by Nobuzane, whose ink painting (Шаблон:Transliteration) enhanced with very discreet colour illustrates perfectly the Шаблон:Transliteration lines.Шаблон:Sfn Additionally, there is the Шаблон:Transliteration, a work of a more idealized than realistic style, which forms a portrait gallery of the Thirty-Six Immortals of Poetry.Шаблон:Sfn More generally, humans are one of the elementary subjects of Шаблон:Transliteration, and many works of the Kamakura period incorporate Шаблон:Transliteration techniques, such as the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn
- Realist paintings
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Colours and dynamism, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Landscape of Mount Kōya, similar to the Chinese Шаблон:Transliteration style, Шаблон:Transliteration, 1299
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Detail of painting of very realistic warriors in faces, weapons and armor, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Realist portrait, or Шаблон:Transliteration, by Taira no Kiyomori, Шаблон:Transliteration, 14th century
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Шаблон:Transliteration portrait of the Шаблон:Transliteration poet Saigū Nyōgo, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
Chinese landscape and Song dynasty wash paintings
The Шаблон:Transliteration style therefore characterised almost all Шаблон:Transliteration, and Chinese painting no longer provided the themes and techniques. However, influences were still noticeable in certain works of the Kamakura period, in particular the art, so famous today, of the Song dynasty wash paintings, which was fully demonstrated in the grandiose and deep landscapes sketched in ink, by Ienaga. Borrowings also remained visible in religious scrolls such as the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn This last work presents many landscapes typical of Japan according to a perspective and a rigorous realism, with a great economy of colors; various Song pictorial techniques are used to suggest depth, such as birds' flights disappearing on the horizon or the background gradually fading.Шаблон:Sfn
- Chinese-inspired paintings
-
Sinistically composed landscape of the Itsukushima Shrine in Miyajima and the famous floating Шаблон:Transliteration, Шаблон:Transliteration, 1299
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Steep mountain landscape and hermitage, Шаблон:Transliteration, 1517
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Zenmyō, a young Chinese woman, confesses her love to the monk Gishō during his stay in China, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
Pictorial techniques
Шаблон:Transliteration technique
The classic Шаблон:Transliteration painting technique is called Шаблон:Nihongo3, used especially in most of the works of the Шаблон:Transliteration style. A sketch of the outlines was first made in ink before applying the colours flat over the entire surface of the paper using vivid and opaque pigments. The outlines, partly masked by the paint, were finally revived in ink and the small details (such as the hair of the ladies) were enhanced.Шаблон:Sfn However, the first sketch was often modified, in particular when the mineral pigments were insoluble in water and therefore required the use of thick glue.Шаблон:Sfn Colour appears to be a very important element in Japanese painting, much more so than in China, because it gives meaning to the feelings expressed; in the Шаблон:Transliteration, the dominant tone of each scene illustrating a key moment of the original novel reveals the deep feelings of the characters.Шаблон:Sfn
During the Kamakura period, the different stages of Шаблон:Transliteration were still widely observed, despite variations (lighter colours, lines more similar to Song dynasty wash paintings, etc.).Шаблон:Sfn
- Шаблон:Transliteration technique (see also [[#Court style: onna-e|Court style: Шаблон:Transliteration]] above)
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Emperor calls Kaoru to play Go, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Wailing women at Tomo no Yoshio house, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Drunk and disorderly court nobles interacting with court ladies, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Kubo version (using Шаблон:Transliteration technique), Шаблон:Transliteration, 14th century
Ink line and monochrome painting
Even though coloured Шаблон:Transliteration often occupy a preponderant place, one finds in contrast monochrome paintings in India ink (Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration), according to two approaches. First, ink lines can be extremely free, with the artist laying on paper unconstrained soft gestures that are especially dynamic, as it is mainly the sense of movement that emerges in these works.Шаблон:Sfn The painter also plays on the thickness of the brush to accentuate the dynamism, as well as on the dilution of the ink to exploit a wider palette of grey.Шаблон:Sfn Among such scrolls, the Шаблон:Transliteration, formerly probably wrongly attributed to Toba Sōjō, remains the best known; Grilli describes the trait as a "continual outpouring".Шаблон:Sfn
The second approach to monochrome paintings is more constructed, with fine, regular strokes sketching a complete and coherent scene, very similar to the first sketch in the Шаблон:Transliteration works before the application of the colours; according to some art historians, it is also possible that these Шаблон:Transliteration are simply unfinished.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Transliteration fits perfectly with this approach, accepting only a few fine touches of red, as do the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Several somewhat amateurish Шаблон:Transliteration illustrations of classic novels remain from late medieval times and the decline of the Шаблон:Transliteration.[14]
By contrast with Western painting, lines and contours in ink play an essential role in Шаблон:Transliteration, monochrome or not.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Sometimes, however, contours are not drawn as usual: thus, in the Шаблон:Transliteration, the absence of contours is used by the artist to evoke the Shinto spirit in Japanese landscapes. Originally from China, this pictorial technique is now called Шаблон:Transliteration ('boneless painting').Шаблон:Sfn
- Ink line and monochrome painting (see also [[#Popular style: otoko-e|Popular style: Шаблон:Transliteration]] above)
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Free ink painting, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Free ink painting, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Very constructed ink painting, similar to Шаблон:Transliteration without colour; the line is fine and uniform. Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Landscape in wash. Monochrome version of Шаблон:Transliteration, 15th century
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Constructed ink painting, Шаблон:Transliteration, monochrome version of The Tale of Genji, 16th century
Spatial and temporal composition
Transitions between scenes
The juxtaposition of the text and the painting constitutes a key point of the narrative aspect of Шаблон:Transliteration. Originally, in the illustrated sutras, the image was organized in a long, continuous frieze at the top of the scroll, above the texts. That approach, however, was quickly abandoned for a more open layout, of which there are three types:Шаблон:Sfn
- Alternation between texts and paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration), the former endeavouring to transcribe the illustrations chosen by the artist. Court style paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration) often opted for this approach, as paintings more readily focused on important moments or conveyed a narrative.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
- Intermittence, where the texts appeared only at the beginning or at the end of the scroll, giving pride of place to continuous illustrations (Шаблон:Transliteration or Шаблон:Transliteration). This type was often used in epic and historical chronicles; the best-known examples are the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn Sometimes, the texts were even hosted by a separate handscroll.
- Paintings interspersed with text, i.e. the text was placed above the people who were speaking, as in the Buddhist accounts of the Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration.
The balance between texts and images thus varied greatly from one work to another. The author had a broad "syntax of movement and time" which allowed him to adapt the form to the story and to the feelings conveyed.Шаблон:Sfn The scrolls with continuous illustrations (Шаблон:Transliteration) naturally made the transitions more ambiguous, because each reader can reveal a larger or smaller portion of the paintings, more or less quickly. In the absence of clear separation between scenes, the mode of reading must be suggested in the paintings in order to maintain a certain coherence.
Two kinds of links between scenes were used by the artists. First, there were links by separation using elements of the scenery (traditionally, river, countryside, mist, buildings) were very common. Secondly, the artists used a palette of transitional elements suggested by the figures or the arrangement of objects. Thus, it was not uncommon for characters to point the finger at the following painting or for them to be represented travelling to create the link between two cities, or for the buildings to be oriented to the left to suggest departure and to the right to suggest the arrival. More generally, Bauer identifies the notion of off-screen (the part of painting not yet visible) that the painter must bring without losing coherence.[25]
- Transitions between texts and paintings: extracts
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Painting in frieze above the text, a form of Chinese origin that was quickly abandoned, Шаблон:Interlanguage link, 8th century
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Text before the painting, Шаблон:Transliteration, 8th century
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Text located in a box at the top of the scroll, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Scene in which the characters' words are written directly in the painting, above them, Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
- Transitions between texts and paintings: complete scrolls
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Alternation between text and painting – Hell Scroll of Nara National Museum, 12th century
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Succession of painted scenes without textual demarcation – Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Succession of painted scenes, with only two sections of text at the beginning and at the end – Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
Perspective and point of view
The space in the composition of an Шаблон:Transliteration constitutes a second important instance of the narration over time. As the scroll is usually read from right to left and top to bottom, the authors mainly adopt plunging points of view (Шаблон:Transliteration, 'bird's-eye perspective'). However, the low height of the Шаблон:Transliteration forces the artist to set up tricks such as the use of long diagonal vanishing lines or sinuous curves suggesting depth.Шаблон:Sfn Indoors, it is the architectural elements (beams, partitions, doors) that are used to set up these diagonals; outdoors, the diagonals are set up by the roofs, walls, roads and rivers, arranged on several planes. In Шаблон:Transliteration painting there is no real perspective in the Western sense – one that faithfully represents what the eye perceives – but, rather, a parallel or oblique projection.Шаблон:Sfn
The arrangement of the elements in an Шаблон:Transliteration scene is based on the point of view, including the technique known as Шаблон:Transliteration. As mentioned above, scenes are most commonly painted when viewed from above (bird's eye view) in order to maximize the space available for painting, despite the reduced height of the scrolls, while leaving part of the background visible.[26]
In the interior scenes, the simplest technique was developed by from the Chinese Tang artists: only three walls of the room are drawn, in parallel perspective; the point of view is located in the place of the fourth wall, a little higher up. When the need to draw several planes – for example the back of the room or a door open to the next one – arose, the artists proceeded by reducing the size (of the scale).Шаблон:Sfn The more general scenes in which the story evolves, such as landscapes, can be rendered from a very distant point of view (as in the Шаблон:Transliteration or the Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn In the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration, the painter opted mainly for a side view, and the development of the story depends on a succession of communicating planes.Шаблон:Sfn
However, the Japanese artists imagined a new arrangement for Шаблон:Transliteration which quickly became the norm for portraying interiors. It was called Шаблон:Transliteration (literally, 'roof removed'), and involves not representing the roofs of buildings, and possibly the walls in the foreground if necessary, to enable a depiction of the interior.[27] Unlike the previous arrangement, the point of view located outside the buildings, still high up, because the primary purpose of Шаблон:Transliteration is to represent two separate narrative spaces – for example two adjoining rooms, or else inside and outside.Шаблон:Sfn The genesis of this technique is still little known (it already appears in the biography on wooden panel of Prince Shōtoku),[27] but it already appeared with great mastery on the Court style paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration) in the 12th century.
In the Шаблон:Transliteration, the composition is closely linked to the text and indirectly suggests the mood of the scene. When Kaoru visits Ukifune, while their love is emerging, the artist shows the reader two narrative spaces thanks to the Шаблон:Transliteration: on the veranda, Kaoru is calm, posed in a peaceful space; inside the building, by contrast, Ukifune and her ladies-in-waiting, are painted on a smaller surface, in turmoil, in a confused composition which reinforces their agitation.Шаблон:Sfn More generally, an unrealistic composition (for example from two points of view) makes it possible to suggest strong or sad feelings.[28]
The Шаблон:Transliteration technique was also used in a variety of other ways, for example with a very high point of view to reinforce the partitioning of spaces, even in a single room, or by giving the landscape a more important place. Ultimately, the primary goal remained to render two narrative stages, and therefore two distinct spaces, in the same painting.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration was therefore used extensively, sometimes even as a simple stylistic instance unrelated to feelings or text, unlike in the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn
Finally, the scale of an Шаблон:Transliteration also makes it possible to suggest depth and guide the arrangement of the elements. In Japanese painting, the scale depends not only on the depth of the scene, but also often on the importance of the elements in the composition or in the story, unlike the realistic renderings in Chinese landscape scrolls. Thus, the main character can be enlarged compared with the others, depending on what the artist wants to express: in the Шаблон:Transliteration, Ippen is sometimes depicted in the background in a landscape the same size as trees or buildings, so that the reader can clearly identify it. Changes in scale can also convey the mood of the moment, such as the strength of will and distress of Sugawara no Michizane in the Шаблон:Transliteration. For Saint-Marc, "each element takes [more generally] the importance it has in itself in the painter's mind", freeing itself from the rules of realistic composition.Шаблон:Sfn
- Perspective techniques
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Long vanishing line guiding eye movement, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Scene in which depth is carried by parallel diagonals (here architecture), without perspective, Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Example of a simple transition using a watercourse, Шаблон:Interlanguage link, 8th century
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Interior view, in which the roof is not shown (Шаблон:Transliteration). Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Interior view of Taima-dera, where the spaces are set aside to show several stages of the story, thanks to the Шаблон:Transliteration. Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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Scale variation, where the main character appears very tall compared with the mountain; opaque mists are also characteristic of Asian art. Шаблон:Transliteration, 1219
Narrative rhythm
The narrative rhythm of Шаблон:Transliteration arises mainly from the arrangement between texts and images, which constitutes an essential marker of the evolution of the story. In Court style paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration), the artist could suggest calm and melancholy via successions of fixed and contemplative shots, as, for example, in the Шаблон:Transliteration, in which the scenes seem to be out of time, punctuating moments of extreme sensibilities.Шаблон:Sfn By contrast, more dynamic stories play on the alternation between close-ups and wide panoramas, elisions, transitions and exaggeration.Шаблон:Sfn In such stories, the narrative rhythm is devoted entirely to the construction of the scroll leading to the dramatic or epic summit, with continuously painted scrolls allowing the action to be revealed as it goes by intensifying the rhythm, and therefore the suspense.Шаблон:Sfn The burning of Sanjō Palace in the Шаблон:Transliteration illustrates this aspect well, as the artist, by using a very opaque red spreading over almost the entire height of the paper, depicts a gradual intensification of the bloody battles and the pursuit of Emperor Go-Shirakawa until the palace catches fire.Шаблон:Sfn Another famous fire, the Ōtenmon Incident in the Шаблон:Transliteration, adopts the same approach, by portraying the movements of the crowd, more and more dense and disorderly, until the revelation of the drama.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
Japanese artists also use other composition techniques to energize a story and set the rhythm: the same characters are represented in a series of varied sets (typically outdoors), a technique known as repetition (Шаблон:Transliteration).Шаблон:Sfn In the Шаблон:Transliteration, a composition centered on Kanazawa Castle gradually shows the capture of the castle by the troops of Minamoto no Yoshiie, creating a gradual and dramatic effect.[29] In the Шаблон:Transliteration, the tower to which Kibi no Makibi (or Kibi Daijin) is assigned is painted to depict each challenge won by the protagonist.[30]
Another narrative technique characteristic of Шаблон:Transliteration is called Шаблон:Transliteration: it consists of representing the same character several times in a single scene, in order to suggest a sequence of actions (fights, discussions, trips) with great space savings.Шаблон:Sfn The movement of the eye is then most often circular, and the scenes portray different moments. Шаблон:Transliteration can equally suggest either a long moment in one scene, such as the nun in the Шаблон:Transliteration who remains in retreat in Tōdai-ji for several hours, or a series of brief but intense actions, such as the fights in the Шаблон:Transliteration and the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the Шаблон:Transliteration, the artist offers a succession of almost "cinematographic" shots alternately showing the distress of Zenmyō, a young Chinese girl, and the boat carrying her beloved away on the horizon.Шаблон:Sfn
- Narrative techniques
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Scene using the Шаблон:Transliteration: the group of demons is first depicted burning below, then listening to the sermons of the historical Buddha in the middle, and finally drinking and reaching the heavens above. Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Шаблон:Transliteration: the nun is depicted alternately praying and sleeping to suggest the length of her retreat. Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Шаблон:Transliteration: two children fight in the centre under the amused eyes of the crowd, then the father of one of them runs up to the left, and unceremoniously expels his son's rival. Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
Calligraphy
As noted in the history section above, the emergence of the Шаблон:Transliteration syllabary contributed to the development of women's court literature and, by extension, the illustration of novels on scrolls. Шаблон:Transliteration were therefore used on Шаблон:Transliteration, although the Chinese characters remained very much also in use. In some particular scrolls, other alphabets can be found, notably Sanskrit on the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn
In East Asia, calligraphy is a predominant art that aristocrats learn to master from childhood, and styles and arrangements of characters are widely codified, although varied. In the context of Шаблон:Transliteration, calligraphic texts can have several purposes: to introduce the story, to describe the painted scenes, to convey religious teachings or to be presented in the form of poems (Шаблон:Transliteration poetry remains the most representative of ancient Japan). For the richly decorated court-style paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration), like the Шаблон:Transliteration, the papers were carefully prepared and decorated with gold and silver dust.Шаблон:Sfn
The text of an Шаблон:Transliteration had more than merely a function of decoration and narration; it could also influence the composition of the paintings. The Шаблон:Transliteration have been widely studied on this point: art historians have shown a link between the feeling conveyed by a text and the dominant colour of the accompanying paint, a colour which is also used for the decorated paper.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In addition, the composition of the paintings may make it possible to understand them in accordance with the text: for example, the characters in the story may have been painted on a scene in a palace in the order of their appearance in the text. Other specialists in turn have insisted on the importance of the text in the positioning of the paintings, an important point in the Buddhist Шаблон:Transliteration, in which the transmission of dogmas and religious teachings remained an essential goal of the artist.
A Japanese art
According to Peter C. Swann, the production of Шаблон:Transliteration was Japan's first truly original artistic movement since the arrival of foreign influences.Шаблон:Sfn China's influence in Шаблон:Transliteration and pictorial techniques remained tangible at the beginning, so much so that historians have worked to formalise what really constitutes Шаблон:Transliteration art as Japanese art. In addition to the Шаблон:Transliteration style, specialists often put forward several elements of answers: the very typical diagonal composition, the perspective depending on the subject, the process of Шаблон:Transliteration, the sensitivity of colours (essential in Шаблон:Transliteration), the stereotypical faces of the characters (impersonal, realistic or caricatured), and finally the hazy atmosphere.Шаблон:Sfn K. Chino and K. Nishi also noted the technique of Шаблон:Transliteration (literally, 'roof removed'), unprecedented in all Asian art.[26] Saint-Marc commented that some of these elements actually existed previously in Chinese painting, and that the originality of Шаблон:Transliteration was in the overall approach and themes established by the Japanese artists.Шаблон:Sfn
The originality of art is also to be sought in its spirit, "the life of an era translated into formal language".Шаблон:Sfn The court style paintings (Шаблон:Transliteration) are part of the aesthetic of Шаблон:Transliteration (literally 'the pathos of things'), a state of mind that is difficult to express, but which can be regarded as a penchant for sad beauty, the melancholy born of the feeling that everything beautiful is impermanent. D. and V. Elisseeff define this aspect of Шаблон:Transliteration as the Шаблон:Transliteration, the feeling of inadequacy, often materialized by a properly Japanese humour. But outside the court, the popular style Шаблон:Transliteration (Шаблон:Transliteration), the art of everyday life, come closer to the human and universal state of mind.Шаблон:Sfn
Historiographical value
Depiction of everyday Japanese life
Sustained production of Шаблон:Transliteration through the Heian, Kamakura and Muromachi periods (about 12th–14th centuries) created an invaluable source of information on the then-contemporary Japanese civilization. Шаблон:Transliteration have been greatly studied in that respect by historians;Шаблон:Sfn no other form of Japanese art has been so intimately linked to the life and culture of the Japanese people.Шаблон:Sfn
A large project of the Kanagawa University made a very exhaustive study of the most interesting paintings across fifteen major categories of elements, including dwellings, elements of domestic life and elements of life outside the home, according to ages (children, workers, old people) and social class.Шаблон:EfnШаблон:Sfn[31] Although the main characters are most often nobles, famous monks or warriors, the presence of ordinary people is more or less tangible in an immense majority of works, allowing a study of a very wide variety of daily activities: peasants, craftsmen, merchants, beggars, women, old people and children can appear in turn.[32][33] In the Шаблон:Transliteration, the activity of women is particularly interesting, the artist showing them preparing meals, washing clothes or breastfeeding.Шаблон:Sfn The Шаблон:Transliteration presents 142 artisans from the Muromachi period, ranging from a blacksmith to a Шаблон:Transliteration maker.Шаблон:Sfn
The clothing of the characters in Шаблон:Transliteration are typically true-to-life and accurately depict contemporary clothing and its relationship to the social categories of the time.[34] In military-themed scrolls, the weapons and armour of the warriors are also depicted with accuracy; the Шаблон:Transliteration, for instance, depicts many details, in particular the armour and harnesses of horses,[35] whilst the Шаблон:Transliteration depicts the fighting styles of the Japanese during the Mongol invasions of Japan, whose tactics were still dominated by the use of the bow.[36][33] Finally, the Шаблон:Transliteration offers a unique insight into certain details of the uniforms of police officers (known as Шаблон:Transliteration).
The aesthetics, alongside the rendering of people's emotions and expressions of feelings, also show a distinct cleavage between the common people and the aristocracy. For Шаблон:Transliteration depicting commoners, emotions such as fear, anguish, excitement and joy are rendered directly and with clarity, whereas aristocratic Шаблон:Transliteration instead emphasise refined, but less direct, themes such as classical romance, the holding of ceremonies, and nostalgia for the Heian period.
Historical, cultural and religious reflection
Depending on the subjects addressed, Шаблон:Transliteration also form an important historiographical source of information about more than just everyday life, including historical events, culture and religion. Among these kinds of Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration comes in the form of a calendar of several annual ceremonies and rites celebrated at court. By their symbolic importance and the complexity of their codes, these events, as well as some more popular festivals, absorbed much of the energy of the Heian period aristocracy. During the subsequent Kamakura period, the forty-eight scrolls of the Шаблон:Transliteration formed an unpublished catalogue of the culture and the society of the time, while recounting, in a proselytising way, the establishment of the first Pure Land school in Japan.Шаблон:Sfn
The architecture of the places used as a setting for an Шаблон:Transliteration can present a great level of visual detail in relation to period structures. The Шаблон:Transliteration thus offers an insight into the Шаблон:Transliteration architectural style, marked by a mixture of influence from Tang China and traditional Japan, such as bark roofs.Шаблон:Sfn More interesting still, the Шаблон:Transliteration details a wide variety of buildings (temples, shrines, palaces, dwellings) taken from life with an unprecedented realism by the painter monk Шаблон:Interlanguage link, so that the buildings preserved today are easily recognizable.Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Transliteration can also include various elements of life in the city or in the country, such as the market in the shopping district of Osaka.[37] Another notable example, the Шаблон:Transliteration gives a unique sketch of the great Buddha original of Tōdai-ji, which burned in 1180.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration very often take historical or religious events as a source of inspiration: the narrative value of the story (the true story) informs contemporary historians as much about the story as about the way of perceiving this story at the time (there is sometimes a gap of several centuries between the time of the story and the time of the painter). Amongst the most interesting information in an Шаблон:Transliteration may be details of the construction of ancient temples, of religious practices[38] and finally of the unfolding of battles and major historical events, such as the Mongol invasions, the Genpei War or even the Ōtenmon political conspiracy.
- Historical, cultural and religious reflection
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Large original Buddha of Tōdai-ji: this is the only iconographic document on this monumental work, which was burned in 1180. Шаблон:Transliteration, 12th century
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Entertainment of the aristocrats on the lake of the palace; the fat man on the veranda is none other than the mighty Fujiwara no Michinaga.Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
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War in all its brutality: armed samurai slaughtering the nobles amid the night attack on Sanjō Palace during the Heiji rebellion. Шаблон:Transliteration, 13th century
Notable examples
Art historians, in their writings, have repeatedly emphasized the specific techniques of Шаблон:Transliteration art through some characteristic scrolls.
Шаблон:Transliteration
The Шаблон:Transliteration, dated approximately between the years 1120 and 1140, illustrate The Tale of Genji in the refined and intimate style of the court (Шаблон:Transliteration), but only a few fragments of four scrolls remain today.Шаблон:Sfn The scene shown here depicts Prince Genji's final visit to his dying beloved, Lady Murasaki. In the composition, the diagonals reveal the emotion of the characters. First, Lady Murasaki appears at the top right, then the lines guide the eye to the prince in the lower centre, who appears to be crushed by sorrow. Then, the reading continues, and, at left, several months have passed, showing the garden of lovers devastated by time, echoing the loved one lost.Шаблон:Sfn The colors are darker than usual. In this scene, all of the classic pictorial elements of the Шаблон:Transliteration of the Шаблон:Transliteration genre are visible: the diagonals that guide the eye, the Шаблон:Transliteration, the Шаблон:Transliteration, and the colours affixed evenly over the entire surface, with the Шаблон:Transliteration technique.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
The Шаблон:Transliteration provides a popular and humorous narrative of three episodes from the life of the Buddhist monk Myōren (founder of Chōgosonshi-ji), emphasizing the line and light colors of the Шаблон:Transliteration. The most precise estimates place it between 1157 and 1180, and the quality of the descriptions of the temples and the palace suggests that the artist is familiar with both ecclesiastical and aristocratic circles.Шаблон:Sfn Myōren, who lived as a hermit in the mountains of Kyoto, used to send a magic bowl by air to the nearby village, in order to receive his offering of rice. One day, a rich merchant became tired of this ritual and locked the bowl in his attic. To punish him, Myōren blew up the whole granary containing the village harvest, as painted in the scene shown here;Шаблон:Sfn in that scene, known as the flying granary, the artist fully represents the popular feelings, fear and panic at seeing the harvest disappear. The movements of the crowd and the expressive, almost burlesque faces of the landscapes contrast with the tangible restraint in the Шаблон:Transliteration.Шаблон:Sfn So, this Шаблон:Transliteration fits into the Шаблон:Transliteration genre, marked by dynamic ink lines, light colors revealing the paper, and themes of everyday life.
Шаблон:Transliteration
The Шаблон:Transliteration recounts the historical events of the Heiji rebellion, an episode in the civil war between the Taira and Minamoto clans at the end of the Heian era. Of the numerous original scrolls, formed in the second half of the 13th century, probably over several decades, only three remain, together with various fragments.Шаблон:Sfn The first scroll, which depicts the Siege of Sanjō Palace, is one of the most renowned in the art of Шаблон:Transliteration, due to its mastery of movement and setting up of the narrative to the climax: the fire, which spreads over almost the entire height of the scroll in the scene shown here. At the seat of the fire, extremely realistically represented soldiers, equipped with weapons and armor, fight violently, while the aristocrats who try to flee are savagely massacred (here, one is slaughtered by a shaggy soldier).Шаблон:Sfn The palace fire echoes that in another, older, scroll, the Шаблон:Transliteration, which is renowned for its mix of colorful and refined scenes.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
The twelve scrolls of the Шаблон:Transliteration narrate the biography of the holy monk Ippen, founder of the Шаблон:Interlanguage link school of Pure Land Buddhism. They were painted in 1299 by the monk-painter Шаблон:Interlanguage link, disciple of Ippen, on silk, probably because of the importance of the character. Ippen, cantor of salvation for all souls and dancing prayers (Шаблон:Transliteration), travelled throughout Japan to transmit his doctrine to men, peasants, townspeople and nobles. The Шаблон:Transliteration is renowned for its many strong scenes of landscapes typical of Japan, so realistic that they can still be recognised perfectly today.Шаблон:Sfn The scene shown here, in which Ippen and his disciples arrive at Kyoto by the bridge over the Kamo River, illustrates the unique Шаблон:Transliteration style, which draws its inspiration from both the classic Шаблон:Transliteration realism of Kamakura art and the wash painting of the Song dynasty. The result, so admired by specialists, appears very close to deep and spiritual Chinese landscapes with rough ink strokes, while retaining a Japanese iconography through the freedom taken with perspective (the characters in particular are disproportionate) and the elements of daily life.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
The Шаблон:Transliteration, painted around 1218–1230, illustrates the legend of two Korean monks who founded the Kegon sect in their country in the 12th century.Шаблон:Sfn One of them, Gishō, made a pilgrimage to China in his youth to complete his Buddhist education. There, he met a young Chinese girl, Zenmyō, who fell in love with him. Alas, on the day he was due to depart, the latter arrived late at the port and, in despair, rushed into the water, swearing to protect her beloved forever. She then transformed into a dragon and became a protective deity of the Kegon school, according to legend. The well-known scene shown here, in which Zenmyō, transformed into a dragon, carries Gishō's ship on her back, features supple and fine lines as well as discreet colors that do not mask the brushstrokes; this style also seems inspired by the wash painting of the Song dynasty to which the very Japanese sensitivity for colors has been added. In fact, the sponsor of the roll, the monk Myōe of Kōzan-ji, appreciated the art of the Asian continent and brought to Japan several contemporary Chinese works, which probably inspired the artists of his painting workshop.Шаблон:Sfn
Шаблон:Transliteration
The original scrolls of the Шаблон:Transliteration, reporting the facts about the life and death of Sugawara no Michizane, scholarly minister to the Emperor during his lifetime, and deified according to legend as a Шаблон:Transliteration of studies and letters, demonstrate a sensitivity in mixing Buddhism and, above all, Shinto. The scrolls were actually intended for the Shinto shrine of Kitano Tenmangū in Kyoto; the last two of eight scrolls narrate the foundation and miracles.Шаблон:Sfn However, the thematic division of the work appears unfinished, the sketch of a ninth scroll having been brought to light. In the scene shown here, Michizane, unjustly condemned to exile, calls out to the gods in his misfortune. The composition of the painting testifies to a very Japanese sensitivity; Michizane is disproportionately depicted to underline his grandeur and determination in the face of dishonour, while the vividly colored and almost contourless (Шаблон:Transliteration) landscape is imbued with Shinto animism.Шаблон:Sfn The mists resembling long opaque ribbons are further features of Шаблон:Transliteration, although also present in a different form in Chinese art.Шаблон:Sfn
See also
- Cantastoria
- Шаблон:Transliteration
- Шаблон:Transliteration
- Moving panorama
- Шаблон:Transliteration
- List of National Treasures of Japan (paintings)
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Journal articles and conference proceedings
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite conference
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- Шаблон:Cite book
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Works specialising in Шаблон:Transliteration
- Шаблон:Cite web
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Works focusing on a specific Шаблон:Transliteration
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
- Шаблон:Cite thesis
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General books on the art of Japan
- Шаблон:Cite book
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External links
Шаблон:Commons category-inline
Шаблон:Portalbar Шаблон:Japanese architectural elements
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 7,0 7,1 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 10,0 10,1 Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 14,0 14,1 14,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 15,2 Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ 26,0 26,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 27,0 27,1 Шаблон:Cite journal (résumé en français)
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite thesis
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ 33,0 33,1 Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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