Английская Википедия:English Defence League
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Pp-vandalism Шаблон:Good article Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox organisation
The English Defence League (EDL) is a far-right, Islamophobic organisation in England. A social movement and pressure group that employs street demonstrations as its main tactic, the EDL presents itself as a single-issue movement opposed to Islamism and Islamic extremism, although its rhetoric and actions target Islam and Muslims more widely. Founded in 2009, its heyday lasted until 2011, after which it entered a decline.
Established in London, the EDL coalesced around several football hooligan firms protesting the public presence of the small Salafi group Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah in Luton, Bedfordshire. Tommy Robinson, a former member of the British National Party (BNP), soon became its de facto leader. The organisation grew swiftly, holding demonstrations across England and often clashing with anti-fascist protesters from Unite Against Fascism and other groups, who deemed it a racist organisation victimising British Muslims. The EDL also established a strong social media presence on Facebook and YouTube. Moving towards electoral politics, it established formal links with the far-right British Freedom Party, a breakaway from the BNP. The EDL's reputation was damaged in 2011 after supporters were convicted of plotting to bomb mosques and links were revealed with Norwegian far-right terrorist Anders Behring Breivik. In 2013 Robinson—supported by the Quilliam think tank—left the group. He claimed it had become too extreme, and established the short-lived rival Pegida UK. EDL membership declined significantly following Robinson's departure and various branches declared independence.
Ideologically on the extreme-right or far-right of British politics, the EDL is part of the international counter-jihad movement. Rejecting the idea that Muslims can truly be English, the EDL presents Islam as an intolerant, primitive threat seeking to take over Europe. Some political scientists and other commentators characterised this Islamophobic stance as culturally racist. Both online and at its events, EDL members have incited violence against Muslims, with supporters carrying out violent acts both at demonstrations and independently. The EDL's broader ideology features nationalism, nativism, and populism, blaming a perceived decline in English culture on high immigration rates and an uncaring political elite. It distinguished itself from Britain's traditional far-right by rejecting biological racism, antisemitism, and homophobia. Commentators differ on whether the EDL itself is ideologically fascist, although several of its leaders were previously involved in fascist organisations and some neo-Nazis and other fascists attended EDL events.
Headed by a small leadership team, in its heyday the EDL sub-divided into over 90 local and thematic divisions, each with considerable autonomy. Its support base consisted primarily of young, working-class white British men, some from established far-right and football hooligan subcultures. Polls indicated that most UK citizens opposed the EDL, and the organisation was repeatedly challenged by anti-fascist groups. Many local councils and police forces discouraged EDL marches, citing the high financial cost of policing them, the disruptive influence on community harmony, and the damage caused to counter-terrorism operations.
History
In the early 21st century, Muslims were Britain's second largest and fastest-growing religious group; according to the 2011 census, 2.7 million people in England and Wales described themselves as Muslim, representing 4.8% of the total population.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, Muslims became the main scapegoat for far-right groups across Western society.Шаблон:Sfnm In Britain, this was partly because prejudices against Jews and African-Caribbean people—both communities the far-right previously used as social scapegoats—were increasingly socially unacceptable.Шаблон:Sfn In the latter half of the 20th century, most British Muslims were of South Asian heritage. When they faced racist abuse, such as "Paki-bashing", it was usually because of their racial background, rather than their religious belief. By the 21st century, British Muslims were increasingly targeted because they were Muslim, including by members of other ethnic minorities in the country.Шаблон:Sfn
The British National Party (BNP) was most successful at exploiting growing hostility against Muslims. It launched an overtly anti-Muslim campaign in 2000, which gained momentum after Salafi jihadi Muslims perpetrated the 2001 September 11 attacks in the United States and then the 7 July 2005 London bombings. This resulted in growing electoral success for the BNP: it secured a seat on the London Assembly in 2008 and two seats at the European Parliament in 2010.Шаблон:Sfn By 2011, this support had declined, with the party losing many of its local council seats.Шаблон:Sfn However, as noted by the political scientist Chris Allen, the BNP had "extended the frontier of the far right in British politics", creating an environment on which the English Defence League would later capitalise.Шаблон:Sfn
Foundation: 2009
The town of Luton in Bedfordshire—which had a Muslim population of around 18%—had a history of radical Islamist recruitment.Шаблон:Sfnm On 10 March 2009, the small, extreme British Salafi Islamist group Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah demonstrated in the town to protest against the Royal Anglian Regiment's homecoming parade following the latter's posting in Afghanistan.Шаблон:Sfnm The demonstration was a deliberately provocative publicity stunt, and had been disowned by representatives from Luton's Islamic communities.Шаблон:Sfn The protest, although small, attracted media attention, generating anger that the authorities had given the demonstration permission and police protection.Шаблон:Sfn
A former regiment member, James Yeomans, organised a counter protest called "Respect Our Troops" for 28 March.Шаблон:Sfnm After local anti-Islamist blogger Paul "Lionheart" Ray publicised the event online, various self-described "anti-jihadist" far-right groups that had emerged from the football hooligan firm scene—including the Welsh Defence League (WDL) and the March for England (MfE)—announced their intention to attend.Шаблон:Sfnm Fearing the far right would hijack his event, Yeomans cancelled it.Шаблон:Sfnm In its place, Ray organised an "anti-jihadist" march for St. George's Day, led by the newly founded United People of Luton (UPL), although this was broken up by police. The UPL organised a second demonstration for 24 May, titled "Ban the Terrorists": this again resulted in disorder, with police making several arrests.Шаблон:Sfnm A related group was Casuals United, founded by established football hooligan Jeff Marsh:Шаблон:Sfn their website used the tagline "One Nation, One Enemy, One Firm", reflecting the group's desire to unite rival football firms in opposition to what it called the "Islamification" of Britain.Шаблон:Sfn
It was from this environment that the English Defence League was officially formed on 27 June 2009.Шаблон:Sfnm Ray claimed to have been its founder, describing how the EDL united the UPL with other "anti-jihadist" groups from around England.Шаблон:Sfn Its creation reflected what the political scientist Roger Eatwell termed "cumulative extremism", whereby the "activities of one extremist group trigger the formation of another".Шаблон:Sfn The EDL took its name from that of the Welsh Defence League; its founders also considered the name "British Defence League", but rejected this as being too similar to that of the British National Party.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL's foundation was accompanied by an impromptu protest outside the East London Mosque in Whitechapel, which police quickly dispersed.Шаблон:Sfnm The following week the group picketed an event in Wood Green, North London organised by Salafi Islamist preacher Anjem Choudary and his Islam4UK group.Шаблон:Sfnm Its first major public appearance to attract attention was in August, when the EDL and Casuals United held a joint protest in Birmingham, prompted by Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah's conversion of an eleven-year-old white boy in that city.Шаблон:Sfnm Ray distanced himself from that event, arguing that the chosen date—8 August—was a deliberate reference to 88, a code for HH (Heil Hitler), in neo-Nazi circles.Шаблон:Sfn
Not long after the group's formation, Ray formed a sub-group, the St. George Division; this broke from the EDL soon after, when Ray emigrated.Шаблон:Sfn This left the way for Tommy Robinson to become the EDL's de facto leader.Шаблон:Sfn A former BNP member with multiple criminal convictions for assault,Шаблон:Sfnm Robinson's real name is Stephen Yaxley-Lennon; the pseudonym was borrowed from the head of a Luton football hooligan firm who had written several books about hooliganism.Шаблон:Sfnm Robinson was clearly spoken, articulate and able to present his views in an assured and eloquent way during television interviews and other encounters with the media.Шаблон:Sfn According to the political scientist Joel Busher, Robinson was "a high-energy, fast-talking, all action character whose combination of swagger, self-deprecation and derring-do helped make him a popular figurehead within the movement."Шаблон:Sfn Ray was critical of his successor, and—from his new base in Malta—posted videos to YouTube in which he threatened to retake control of the EDL. These threats came to nothing.Шаблон:Sfn
Robinson's right-hand man was his cousin, Kevin Carroll, also a former BNP member with a criminal conviction;Шаблон:Sfn Carroll was the first of the pair to attract national attention, appearing on the BBC documentary Young, British and Angry.Шаблон:Sfn Another senior member was the multimillionaire IT consultant and fundamentalist Christian Alan Ayling, who used the pseudonym Alan Lake;Шаблон:Sfnm allegations have been made, but not substantiated, that Lake was the group's primary financier, providing it with millions of pounds.Шаблон:Sfnm[1] Lake never become a visible figure in the movement and few members knew his name;Шаблон:Sfn it was at Lake's flat in London's Barbican area, however, where Ray, Robinson, and Ann Marchini had discussed the EDL's formation in May 2009.Шаблон:Sfn
Growth: 2010–2013
Following the BNP's decline as a serious electoral force,Шаблон:Sfn the EDL's profile rose dramatically.Шаблон:Sfn The group portrayed itself as a necessary response to public frustration at the government's inaction in dealing with what the EDL initially termed "extremist Muslim preachers and organisations".Шаблон:Sfn It claimed that Englishness had been marginalised throughout England, citing the fact that some state schools only supplied halal meat and had stopped celebrating Nativity plays at Christmas time as evidence. It was also claimed that some local authorities had ceased flying the flag of St George.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL focused on organising demonstrations: between 2009 and 2015, it held an average of between ten and fifteen demonstrations per year, attracting crowds of between 100 and 3000.Шаблон:Sfn It faced opposition from media commentators and anti-fascist groups, who described it as racist, far right, and extreme right, terms rejected by the group.Шаблон:Sfn Most notable among the anti-fascist groups organising counter-protests was Unite Against Fascism,Шаблон:Sfnm while Islamic groups sometimes also held counter-protests.Шаблон:Sfn In turn, the EDL targeted left-wing groups.Шаблон:Sfn In December 2010, Robinson threatened action against student anti-fee protesters, while in 2011 the EDL harassed Occupy anti-capitalist protesters in London.Шаблон:Sfn During the 2011 England riots, contingents of EDL members mobilised in largely white areas of Outer London, such as Enfield and Eltham, claiming that they were there to "defend" them from rioters.Шаблон:Sfnm These also resulted in clashes with police,[2] and in one incident EDL members attacked a bus primarily carrying black youths.[3]
The EDL began to lose momentum in 2011.Шаблон:Sfn Factors that contributed to this included regional rivalries between divisions, a resurgence of sectarian enmities between rival football firms, and personal squabbles.Шаблон:Sfn By early 2011, several divisions in northern England were referring to themselves as "the Infidels", expressing an increasingly separate identity from the EDL.Шаблон:Sfn Several of the northern groups expressed support for a former EDL regional organiser, John "Snowy" Shaw, who had accused Robinson and Carroll of financial impropriety.Шаблон:Sfn At a February 2011 EDL rally in Blackburn, Shaw's supporters violently clashed with Robinson's;Шаблон:Sfn Robinson fought with a fellow member at the rally, resulting in a September 2011 conviction for assault.Шаблон:Sfn Robinson's criminal record prevented him from entering the US, but in September 2011 he sought to do so illegally by using someone else's passport. He was caught and returned to Britain; in January 2013 he was convicted of breaching the Identity Documents Act 2010 and imprisoned for ten months.[4][5] Robinson's imprisonment coincided with Carroll's bail conditions, which barred him from contacting fellow EDL members; this left the organisation without its co-leaders for part of 2012.Шаблон:Sfn
The revelation of links to Norwegian far-right activist Anders Behring Breivik, perpetrator of a series of bombing and shooting attacks in July 2011, killing 77 people, further damaged the EDL. He was affiliated with the EDL's Norwegian sister organisation, the Norwegian Defence League, and stated that he had "more than 600 EDL members as Facebook friends and have spoken with tens [sic] of EDL members and leaders".Шаблон:Sfnm Breivik described EDL co-founder Ray as his "mentor",Шаблон:Sfn having been in communication with him since 2002.Шаблон:Sfn Four months before his attack, Breivik posted on the EDL website, describing them as an "inspiration" and "a blessing to all in Europe".Шаблон:Sfnm Online, he described having attended an EDL rally in Bradford.[6] Robinson denied any EDL links with Breivik and deplored the killings;Шаблон:Sfn[7] however, after Breivik was convicted, some EDL members praised his actions.[8] In July 2011, Interpol requested Maltese police investigate Ray due to his links with Breivik;Шаблон:Sfn[9][10] he too condemned the killings, calling them "pure evil".Шаблон:Sfn In December 2011, two EDL supporters—one a serving soldier in the British military—were convicted of plotting to bomb a mosque in Stoke-on-Trent.Шаблон:Sfn[11]
Building political links
The EDL developed links with the British Freedom Party (BFP), a BNP breakaway founded in October 2010. The BFP was led by Eddy Butler, who had previously made an unsuccessful attempt to oust the BNP leader Nick Griffin.Шаблон:Sfn The BFP wanted to move closer to mainstream politics by disassociating itself from the BNP's emphasis on biological racism and imitating continental European right-wing groups such as the Dutch Party for Freedom.Шаблон:Sfn In May 2012, it was announced that Robinson and Carroll would join the BFP's executive council as joint vice chairs, cementing links between the BFP and the EDL.Шаблон:Sfn Robinson soon resigned from this position, citing a desire to focus on the EDL, although critics suggested that this may have been to shield the BFP from criminal proceedings he then faced.Шаблон:Sfn
In 2012, Carroll stood for election in the Police and Crime Commissioner elections.Шаблон:Sfn In January 2013, he took charge of the BFP after its leader, Paul Weston, resigned.Шаблон:Sfn The BFP did poorly at a series of local elections, failing to gain sufficient votes to have its deposits returned; its failure to register correctly led the Electoral Commission to remove its registration.Шаблон:Sfn Among the EDL grassroots, there had been much opposition to association with the BFP; many feared that it would damage the EDL's reputation or stressed their desire to be part of a street movement rather than a political party.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL subsequently established links with another BNP breakaway group; in February 2013, it provided a security force for an event by the far-right British Democratic Party (BDP), which was founded by Andrew Brons, who had previously represented the BNP at the European Parliament.Шаблон:Sfn
Decline: 2013–present
By early 2013, commentators believed that the EDL was in decline, reflected in the decreasing numbers attending its events, Robinson's imprisonment, and its failure to enter electoral politics.Шаблон:Sfn Groups which had closely allied to the EDL, such as Casuals United and March for England, were reasserting their individual identities.Шаблон:Sfn Splinter groups appeared, among them the North West Infidels, North East Infidels, South East Alliance and Combined Ex-Forces.Шаблон:Sfnm Some of these, such as the North West Infidels and South East Alliance, adopted more extreme perspectives, cooperating with the fascist National Front and making reference to the white supremacist 14 words slogan on their social media.Шаблон:Sfn Other activists moved away from the EDL to focus on campaigning for Brexit, the UK's exit from the European Union.Шаблон:Sfn It is possible that the electoral growth of the right-wing UK Independence Party (UKIP) in this period also contributed to the EDL's decline, with many EDL supporters finding it easier to vote for UKIP than physically attend EDL events.Шаблон:Sfn In April 2013, the EDL leadership requested that members use tactical voting to benefit UKIP; the latter responded by distancing itself from the EDL.[12]
The EDL experienced a brief resurgence in its fortunes after Islamist militants killed the British Army soldier Lee Rigby in southeast London in May 2013.Шаблон:Sfnm The group tripled its number of Facebook followers in the 24 hours after the incident,Шаблон:Sfn and organised several flash demonstrations.Шаблон:Sfn At one such event, Robinson told members that "What you saw today [i.e. Rigby's killing] is Islam. Everyone's had enough."Шаблон:Sfn On 27 May, the EDL held a demonstration in central London that attracted a thousand participants;Шаблон:Sfn another, held in central Birmingham in July, attracted several hundred.Шаблон:Sfn
On 8 October 2013, Robinson and Carroll announced that they were leaving the EDL following meetings with the think tank Quilliam. Robinson said that street protests were "no longer effective" and "acknowledged the dangers of far-right extremism". He stated his intention to continue to combat extremism by forming a new party. Both Robinson and Carroll had been taking lessons in Islam from a Quilliam member, Usama Hasan, and stated their intent to train in lobbying institutions.[13][14][15] Quilliam had given Robinson £8000 to facilitate his departure;Шаблон:Sfn it hoped that in doing so it would "decapitate" the EDL.Шаблон:Sfn Robinson's departure generated much anger among the grassroots, many of whom came to regard him as a traitor.Шаблон:Sfn A meeting of the group's regional organisers led to the EDL's adoption of a new system of collective leadership, through which the 19 regional organisers formed a governing committee with a rotating chair.Шаблон:Sfn The first to take on this role was Tim Ablitt;Шаблон:Sfnm[16] in February 2014 he was succeeded by Steve Eddowes;Шаблон:Sfn and in December 2015 by Ian Crossland, with the grassroots having been given a voice in his selection through an online vote.Шаблон:Sfn
Although the EDL had declined, the sentiments feeding it—especially anger at immigration and Islam—remained widespread in white working-class communities across Britain.Шаблон:Sfn Other far-right groups emerged to claim the space in British society that it left vacant, often utilising the EDL's tactics.Шаблон:Sfn Britain First sought to court disenchanted EDL members,Шаблон:Sfn although the two groups were mutually hostile.Шаблон:Sfn Like the EDL, Britain First utilised street protests, organising what it called "Christian patrols" through areas with Islamic communities,Шаблон:Sfn as well as "mosque invasions" in which members marched into mosques to disrupt proceedings.Шаблон:Sfn In December 2015, Robinson launched another anti-Islam street movement, Pegida UK, with fellow far-right activist Anne Marie Waters; his hope was to imitate the successes of the German Pegida movement.Шаблон:Sfnm Although by 2023 the EDL was considered defunct as an organisation,[17] Prime Minister Rishi Sunak condemned a group of far-right protesters and football hooligans as "EDL thugs", in reference to Tommy Robinson and the organisation's involvement in the violence at the Cenotaph on Armistice Day in Whitehall, London.[18][19][20][21]
Ideology
Political scientists locate the EDL on the far-right of the left–right political spectrum,Шаблон:Sfnm sometimes referring to its ideology as "extreme right",Шаблон:Sfn or "right-wing extremism".Шаблон:Sfn In various respects, it resembles other far-right groups,Шаблон:Sfn particularly those that emerged across early 21st century Europe.Шаблон:Sfn From its early days, its demonstrations were attended by members of older far-right parties such as the National Front and the British National Party,Шаблон:Sfn however the EDL itself differs from these older groups by reaching out to Jews, people of colour, and LGBT people, against whom the far right historically discriminated.Шаблон:Sfn Thus, the historian of the far right Paul Jackson referred to it as part of a "new far right" which presents itself as being more moderate than its predecessors.Шаблон:Sfn The ethnographer Hilary Pilkington suggested that Cas Mudde's concept of the "populist radical right" better defines the EDL than "far-right".Шаблон:Sfn The EDL has been characterised as populist because of its claim to represent "ordinary people" against the liberal elites whom it alleges control the country.Шаблон:Sfnm
The EDL disavows the "far-right" label,Шаблон:Sfnm describing itself as "non-political, taking no position on right-wing vs. left-wing. We welcome members from all over the political spectrum, and with varying views on foreign policy, united against Islamic extremism and its influence on British life."Шаблон:Sfn Its online material nevertheless often condemns left-wingers.Шаблон:Sfn When examining the EDL's public statements, Jackson cautioned against automatically taking them at face value; as he noted, far-right groups typically present "front stage" messages for public consumption which conceal the more aggressive views expressed in private.Шаблон:Sfn
Anti-Islamism and Islamophobia
EDL members regularly refer to Islam as an "ideology" or a "cult" rather than a "religion",Шаблон:Sfn and perceive it as a threat to Western culture.Шаблон:Sfn Evoking Samuel P. Huntington's notion of the Clash of Civilizations,Шаблон:Sfn the group's discourse constructs a binary division between Western and Islamic culture, the former presented as tolerant and progressive and the latter as intolerant and backward.Шаблон:Sfn EDL rhetoric explicitly distinguishes Muslims from the English national group:Шаблон:Sfnm for the EDL, a Muslim cannot be truly English,Шаблон:Sfn and the idea of an English Muslim or a British Muslim identity is not considered acceptable.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL is part of the international "counter-jihad" movement.Шаблон:Sfnm The political scientist Hilary Aked defined counter-jihadism as "a section of the far-right distinguished by its hostility to migrants, Muslims and Islam."Шаблон:Sfn Another political scientist, Matthew Goodwin, noted that the counter-jihad movement was "united by their belief that Islam and Muslims are posing a fundamental threat to the resources, identities and even survival of Western states", and that counter-jihad groups were "more confrontational, chaotic and unpredictable than traditional anti-immigrant and ethnic nationalist movements in Western democracies".Шаблон:Sfn
Pilkington characterised the EDL as an "anti-Islamist movement",Шаблон:Sfn but considered there to be crossover with broader anti-Islam or anti-Muslim positions.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL states it only opposes the "Islamic extremist" but not the "ordinary Muslim",Шаблон:Sfnm a distinction also drawn by many of its activists.Шаблон:Sfn However, the EDL's rhetoric regularly fails to make this distinction.Шаблон:Sfnm It is likely that many encountering the EDL's rhetoric are not able to appreciate a distinction between different interpretations of Islam,Шаблон:Sfn and research among the group's grassroots found that many did not do so.Шаблон:Sfn Various scholars describe the EDL as Islamophobic,Шаблон:Sfnm a characterisation the EDL rejects.Шаблон:Sfnm It does so by defining "Islamophobia" as a phobia or affected prejudice, a definition different from the majority of academics and activists employing the term,Шаблон:Sfn stating that "the English Defence League do not 'fear' Islam, we do not have a 'phobia' about Islam, we just realise the very serious threat it poses".Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL fears that Muslims want to dominate Britain by imposing sharia law.Шаблон:Sfnm It claims that this takeover is being facilitated by higher birth rates among Muslims than non-Muslims,Шаблон:Sfn and characterises the building of mosques as evidence of this desire for domination.Шаблон:Sfnm It presents Muslim attempts to participate in political life as entryism, an attempt to expand Islamic influence in the Britain.Шаблон:Sfnm The group and its members also allege that British Muslims implicitly support Islamic extremism by failing to speak out against it.Шаблон:Sfnm
EDL discourse refers to "Islamic supremacism", the belief that Muslims express a superiority complex over non-Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn It believes that Muslims view non-Muslims as legitimate targets for abuse and exploitation.Шаблон:Sfn A topic of particular anger among members is the role of men from Muslim backgrounds in grooming gangs largely targeting underage white girls.Шаблон:Sfnm For instance, in drawing attention to the fact that men from Islamic backgrounds were disproportionately represented in the Rochdale and West Midlands child sex grooming scandals, the EDL claimed these men found justification for their actions in Qur'anic references to non-Muslims being inferior.Шаблон:Sfnm Conversely, when white sex offenders were exposed, EDL members regarded the perpetrator's ethnicity or religion as irrelevant.Шаблон:Sfn EDL members also expressed anger at perceived Muslim involvement in drug dealing and other crimes affecting their communities,Шаблон:Sfn and at the perceived wealth of British Muslims, which they contrasted with their own strained economic situation.Шаблон:Sfn
The sociologists Simon Winlow, Steve Hall and James Treadwell noted that all the EDL members they encountered expressed hatred of Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn Many placed this hatred in relation to local issues and personal experiences; for instance, EDL members regarded being poorly treated by an Asian shopkeeper as evidence that Muslims intrinsically hate the white working class.Шаблон:Sfn Others expressed anger at events they had seen in the media, such as Muslims burning remembrance poppies in protest at British military activities abroad.Шаблон:Sfn On the EDL's social media, many supporters incite violence against Muslims: examples include "we need to kill", "time to get violent", and "Kill any muslim u see [sic]".Шаблон:Sfn Chants during rallies included "Die, Muslim, die",Шаблон:Sfn and "Give me a gun and I'll shoot the Muzzie scum".Шаблон:Sfnm The racial slur "paki" was also common at private EDL meetings,Шаблон:Sfn and at demonstrations;Шаблон:Sfnm chants used include "I hate Pakis more than you"Шаблон:Sfn and "If we all hate Pakis, clap your hands".Шаблон:Sfn
Nationalism, anti-immigrationism, and views on race and sexuality
The EDL is nationalist,Шаблон:Sfn or ultra-nationalist,Шаблон:Sfn and its members regard themselves as patriots.Шаблон:Sfn Some academics argued it is ethnic nationalist,Шаблон:Sfnm although Pilkington stressed that despite their nativist sentiment, most members' sense of English pride was distinct from the "white pride" of fascists.Шаблон:Sfn Its members' understandings of "Englishness" are nevertheless ambiguous and ill-defined;Шаблон:Sfnm the only thing they agree upon about the English way of life is that Muslims fundamentally reject it.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL presents English identity as something that is under threat,Шаблон:Sfn and its views are reflected in chants like "we want our country back".Шаблон:Sfn Its nationalism is foregrounded in its nomenclature and symbols, which regularly include the cross of St George.Шаблон:Sfn Such imagery evokes the symbolism of the medieval Crusades;Шаблон:Sfnm its Latin motto, "in hoc signo vinces", was that of the first Christian Roman Emperor, Constantine.Шаблон:Sfn
Alessio and Meredith thought the EDL is anti-immigrant,Шаблон:Sfn and anti-migrant sentiment is common among EDL members.Шаблон:Sfn They see immigration as detrimental to the white British,Шаблон:Sfn socially divisive, and fundamentally changing the nature of England.Шаблон:Sfn EDL members see migrants as economic competition, outcompeting white British workers for jobs by working for less than the legal minimum wage.Шаблон:Sfnm At the same time, they often express sympathy for migrants as individuals seeking a better life,Шаблон:Sfn and typically distinguish between "good" migrants who worked hard and paid taxes and "bad" migrants who live off the welfare state.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL says it is not racist,Шаблон:Sfnm and employs the slogan "Black and White unite: all races and religions are welcome in the EDL".Шаблон:Sfn It formed specific divisions for Hindu, Sikh, Jewish, Greek and Cypriot, and Pakistani Christian supporters,Шаблон:Sfn and small numbers of Asian, African, and mixed heritage supporters attended its events.Шаблон:Sfnm These are often viewed as "trophy" members, with many white members asking to have their photographs taken with them.Шаблон:Sfn Members are often keen to stress that they have ethnic minority friends and family members as a means of countering accusations of racism,Шаблон:Sfn adopting the view that "lack of racism towards one group is assumed to be evidence of lack of racism against all".Шаблон:Sfn Members often view the multi-racial nature of England as a positive thing,Шаблон:Sfn although almost uniformly reject the ideology of multiculturalism,Шаблон:Sfnm portraying it as something mainstream politicians have encouraged out of a desire to be seen as cosmopolitan and progressive and because of a fascination for the exoticism of other cultures.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL condemns homophobia and established an LGBT division in March 2010.Шаблон:Sfn This pro-LGBT rights stance allows the EDL to criticise what it presents as the left's refusal to confront Islamic homophobia.Шаблон:Sfn Pilkington argued that this pro-LGBT rights stance was not solely a cynical ploy by the EDL's leadership, but reflected widespread views within the movement.Шаблон:Sfn She observed gay and transgender speakers receiving a warm reception at EDL rallies, while the LGBT rainbow flag was regularly flown at EDL rallies;Шаблон:Sfnm at the same time, Pilkington heard homophobic comments at EDL events.Шаблон:Sfn
Relationship to fascism and neo-Nazism
Several commentators have argued that the EDL is not fascist.Шаблон:Sfn Nigel Copsey, a historian of the far-right, stated that the EDL was not driven by the same "ideological end-goal" as neo-fascist and other fascist groups;Шаблон:Sfn unlike fascists, the EDL has not expressed a desire for major structural change to the British state.Шаблон:Sfn Several fascist groups distanced themselves from the EDL;Шаблон:Sfn the BNP leader Nick Griffin for instance claimed the EDL was a false flag operation manipulated by "Zionists".Шаблон:Sfn Conversely, the political scientists Dominic Alessio and Meredith Kristen argued that the EDL "embodied" many of the "key characteristics of fascism": a staunch nationalism and calls for national rebirth,Шаблон:Sfn a propensity for violence,Шаблон:Sfn and what they described as "pronounced anti-democratic and anti-liberal tendencies" among its leaders.Шаблон:Sfn They highlighted that much of the group's leadership came directly from the fascist BNP, and that EDL events have been supported by present and former members of fascist groups like the National Front (NF), the Racial Volunteer Force, Blood & Honour, and Combat 18.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL is not a neo-Nazi organisation.Шаблон:Sfn It distanced itself from neo-Nazism,Шаблон:Sfn for instance by burning a Nazi flag,Шаблон:Sfnm flying the Israeli flag during demonstrations,Шаблон:Sfnm and creating a Jewish division.Шаблон:Sfn In 2010, Robinson stated: "We're not Nazis, we're not fascists – we will smash Nazis the same way we will smash militant Islam."Шаблон:Sfn Early EDL demonstrations were nevertheless advertised on the white supremacist website Stormfront,Шаблон:Sfn and Holocaust denial has been espoused on the EDL's social media platforms.Шаблон:Sfn Neo-Nazis have attended EDL events,Шаблон:Sfn where individuals have given the Nazi straight-arm salute.Шаблон:Sfnm In 2011, the head of the EDL's Jewish Division, Roberta Moore, left the organisation, citing the presence of neo-Nazis and other fascists.Шаблон:Sfnm Some of these individuals have been banned from EDL events by the group,Шаблон:Sfn a move with widespread support from EDL members more broadly, who were keen to distance themselves from neo-Nazism.Шаблон:Sfn
Organisation and structure
A social movementШаблон:Sfnm—and more specifically a new social movementШаблон:Sfn and social movement organisationШаблон:Sfn—the EDL is a direct action or street-based protest movement.Шаблон:Sfnm A pressure group rather than a political party,Шаблон:Sfn its members often stress their opinion that it was not a political organisation.Шаблон:Sfn Like other counter-jihad groups in Western countries,Шаблон:Sfn the EDL describes itself as a human rights organisation,Шаблон:Sfnm a characterisation not widely accepted among the British public.Шаблон:Sfn
Leadership and branches
The EDL's informal structure lacks strict hierarchy,Шаблон:Sfn or clear leadership.Шаблон:Sfn In its early years, the EDL was controlled by a leadership group referred to as the "team"; this included Robinson,Шаблон:Sfn although other members often remained anonymous or used pseudonyms.Шаблон:Sfn In 2010, the EDL went through a formal restructuring to deal with Robinson's absence,Шаблон:Sfn although until October 2013 the EDL was led by Robinson and Carroll as co-leaders, supported by the regional organisers of the 19 regional divisions.Шаблон:Sfn After that duo left, it was reorganised around a committee leadership headed by a rotating chair.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL lacks a central regulatory structure through which to impose a uniform approach to strategy or maintain ideological purity.Шаблон:Sfnm It operates through a loose network of local divisions,Шаблон:Sfn each largely autonomous;Шаблон:Sfn this loose structure is popular among the membership.Шаблон:Sfn There is no system of official membership recognised through membership cards,Шаблон:Sfn and no membership fees.Шаблон:Sfnm The EDL formerly divided into at least ninety different divisions.Шаблон:Sfnm Branches typically held their meeting in pubs with sympathetic owners, referred to as "HQs".Шаблон:Sfn These meetings—which were infrequent and often poorly attended—were typically unstructured, lacking any formal agenda or the taking of minutes.Шаблон:Sfn As well as these divisional meetings, EDL divisions also held "meet and greet" events to attract new membership.Шаблон:Sfn
Some divisions were based on locality and others on special interests.Шаблон:Sfn The latter included a women's division, Jewish division, Sikh division, Hindu division, and LGBT division.Шаблон:Sfn For a brief period it also had a disabled division,Шаблон:Sfn green division,Шаблон:Sfn a soldiers' division,Шаблон:Sfn and a youth division.Шаблон:Sfn These groups were designed to raise the profile of particular social groups within the EDL itself and help to draw recruits from sectors of society that normally avoided membership in a far-right grouping, such as ethnic minorities and LGBT people.Шаблон:Sfn Some local divisions covered whole cities or counties while in other cases there could be more than one division representing a single postcode, in part due to personal disputes.Шаблон:Sfn Local groups were organised into a series of nine areas: North West, North East, East Midlands, West Midlands, East Anglia, South West, South East, South East Central, and Greater London.Шаблон:Sfn In 2010, new regional organisers were introduced for each;Шаблон:Sfnm the EDL was heavily reliant on these grassroots networks and the initiative of local and regional leaders.Шаблон:Sfn
Demonstrations
The EDL's primary activity was street protests,Шаблон:Sfnm which regularly attracted media attention.Шаблон:Sfn These protests came in three forms: national demonstrations attracting activists from across the country, local demonstrations featuring largely the local EDL division, and flash demonstrations held without giving the authorities prior warning of the event.Шаблон:Sfn The use of aggressive street rallies has a long history among the British far right, having been previously used by the British Union of Fascists in the 1930s, the National Front in the 1970s, and the British National Party in the 1980s and 1990s.Шаблон:Sfn
Copsey noted that the "overwhelming majority" of attendees at EDL demonstrations were "young, white, working-class males".Шаблон:Sfn Relatively few women attended,Шаблон:Sfn and similarly comparatively few people of colour joined.Шаблон:Sfn EDL members had a "street uniform" in the form of wristbands, t-shirts, and hoodies bearing the group's logo.Шаблон:Sfn The hoodie was often selected for its intimidating atmosphere and for its symbolic connections with the chav stereotype, thus reasserting members' working-class identity.Шаблон:Sfnm Many members wore masks decorated with either the EDL logo or the St George's cross;Шаблон:Sfn some wore pig face masks or masks of figures whom they wished to ridicule, such as the Salafi jihadist leader Osama bin Laden.Шаблон:Sfn Others carried the English flag of St George or the British Union Jack flag, and the Israeli and LGBT Pride flags were also often in attendance.Шаблон:Sfn Reflecting the place of football hooligans in the EDL, some male members wore expensive designer clothing to its rallies.Шаблон:Sfn
To reach national events, local EDL groups often hired coaches to transport them to their destination.Шаблон:Sfn The coach provided a space in which these members engaged in singing, banter, story-telling, and practical jokes.Шаблон:Sfn As well as being protests, these demonstrations served as social events for EDL members,Шаблон:Sfn helping to forge a sense of solidarity and of the EDL as "one big family".Шаблон:Sfn At demonstrations, many members—including those too young to legally drink—consume large quantities of alcohol,Шаблон:Sfnm with some also consuming cocaine prior to the protest.Шаблон:Sfnm
At demonstrations, speeches typically focus on the perceived threat of Islamification, but also raise issues like the dangers of political correctness and the errors of the political left.Шаблон:Sfn EDL demonstrations were typified by continuous chanting with aggressive slogans aimed at Muslims.Шаблон:Sfnm Pilkington divided these chants into three types: those which were anti-Islam, those which were patriotic in referencing an English identity, and those which were identity affirming in making specific reference to the EDL itself.Шаблон:Sfn Alongside chants, the EDL often employed songs, including the UK national anthem "God Save the Queen", patriotic songs like "Keep St George in my Heart, Keep me English"—sung to the tune of the hymn "Give Me Joy in My Heart"—and the anti-Islam themed "There were Ten Muslim Bombers in the Air".Шаблон:Sfn
During demonstrations, the EDL have regularly been met with opposition from anti-fascist groups like Unite Against Fascism,Шаблон:Sfn and sometimes also from Islamic groups.Шаблон:Sfn The clashes between the rival groups often resulted in violence and public disorder,Шаблон:Sfnm with the police seeking to keep the two apart.Шаблон:Sfn The police and local authorities initially allowed most EDL rallies to take place and did not often request banning orders.Шаблон:Sfn In October 2010, West Yorkshire Police successfully requested a government ban on the EDL holding a rally in Bradford, fearing that it would spark violent racial tensions akin to those which had taken place in 2001.Шаблон:Sfn In October 2010, the Home Secretary Theresa May granted Leicester Police's request to ban a planned EDL march in that city.Шаблон:Sfn By September 2011, over 600 arrests had been made in connection with EDL demonstrations and the policing costs were estimated to have exceeded £10 million.Шаблон:Sfn In some cases, most of those arrested were EDL members; in others, most of those arrested were counter-protesters.Шаблон:Sfn
Mobilising on local issues
The EDL sometimes mobilise around local tensions between Islamic and non-Muslim communities, campaigns often organised by local divisions rather than the national leadership.Шаблон:Sfn After inebriated Somali women racially assaulted a white woman in Leicester in June 2010, the EDL organised a protest rally there, attributing the attack to the supremacist attitude that Islam supposedly cultivated among its followers.Шаблон:Sfn When a white man was assaulted by Asian youths in the Hyde area of Greater Manchester, the EDL again organised a demonstration, blaming the attack on Muslims, although police had not ascertained the perpetrators' religious background.Шаблон:Sfn In April 2011, the group demonstrated in Blackburn in response to hit and run incidents where Muslim drivers had hit non-Muslims; the EDL disregarded requests by the victims' families not to politicise the events.Шаблон:Sfn
In 2011, the EDL launched a nationwide campaign, "No New Mosques", which built upon earlier campaigns against mosque construction organised by various local divisions.Шаблон:Sfn When a mosque was due to be built in West Bridgford, an EDL organiser and three associates placed a severed pig's head at the site, accompanied with the spray-painted slogan "No mosque here EDL Notts".Шаблон:Sfn In April 2010, 3000 EDL demonstrators protested the construction of a new mosque in Dudley.Шаблон:Sfn Two months later, EDL members occupied the roof of an abandoned building on the site of the proposed mosque, expressing their intent to play the Islamic call to prayer five times a day to alert locals to the noise pollution they would suffer when the mosque was built. Police swiftly removed the demonstrators.Шаблон:Sfn
The EDL is aware that its demonstrations prove costly for local authorities.Шаблон:Sfn The Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council for instance stated that policing the 2010 EDL protest had cost over £1 million.Шаблон:Sfn To deal with an EDL protest in Leicester, the Leicestershire Police Force had to put on its largest operation in 25 years, bringing in 2000 police officers to manage the demonstration.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL used this leverage to pressurise local councils into agreeing to some of its demands; in 2010 it issued a letter stating that any local councils that held Winter-themed festivities rather than explicitly Christmas-themed ones could "have their town/city visited by the English Defence League throughout the following year".Шаблон:Sfnm
Violence
The EDL claims to disavow violence,Шаблон:Sfn although many attending its rallies stated that they did so because they enjoyed the adrenalin rush brought on by violent confrontation.Шаблон:Sfnm Some also described violent clashes as the best way to draw media attention to their cause,Шаблон:Sfn and presented their violence as being heroic.Шаблон:Sfn Meadowcroft and Morrow argued that many football hooligans joined the EDL because of the opportunity that its rallies offered for violence at a time when there were decreasing opportunities to do so at football matches themselves due to greater use of banning orders targeting known hooligans, a more effective police presence, and increasing ticket prices that had becoming prohibitively high for those on low incomes.Шаблон:Sfn
In various cases, EDL demonstrators damaged Asian-owned businesses and property;Шаблон:Sfnm in October 2011, EDL members stormed and ransacked an Ahmadiyya Islamic bookstore in Sandwell,Шаблон:Sfn[23] and in August 2011 an EDL member was convicted for vandalising a mosque.[24] Demonstrations also led to physical attacks on Asians themselves.Шаблон:Sfn Not all targets of EDL violence have been Muslim; in a July 2010 demonstration in Dudley, EDL members attacked a Hindu temple. It is unclear whether they mistook it for a mosque or whether it reflected broader racist attitudes among the demonstrators.Шаблон:Sfn
EDL members also disrupted the meetings of opponents; in September 2010 they disrupted a UAF meeting in Leicester, and later that month attacked a meeting of the Socialist Workers Party in Newcastle-upon-Tyne.Шаблон:Sfn EDL members also targeted left-wing bookshops and trade union buildings,Шаблон:Sfnm and members have been jailed for attacking staff at office buildings hosting anti-EDL meetings.[25] The EDL also targeted demonstrators from the anti-capitalist Occupy movement; in November 2011, 179 EDL members were arrested in central London for threatening members of Occupy London.Шаблон:Sfn Journalists that covered EDL marches also received death threats.[26][27]
In January 2015, a year after a Crimewatch appeal, 50 EDL supporters were sentenced for their involvement in violent protests in Centenary Square, Birmingham, in July 2013. Police were attacked with missiles and bottles at the event, described as a riot, where one officer was also injured.[28]
Online activism
The EDL makes significant use of the internet,Шаблон:Sfn including an official website and accounts on social media platforms such as Facebook and YouTube.Шаблон:Sfn In using social media, the EDL seeks to bypass the mainstream media, which it regards as being biased against it.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL hierarchy has moderated these social media accounts, blocking users critical of the EDL, but did not appear to remove posts advocating violence towards Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn The use of Facebook allowed the group to build momentum and expectancy ahead of public events.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL's Facebook following peaked at 100,000 before the Facebook corporation closed the group's account.Шаблон:Sfn
Unlike political parties, the EDL does not produce leaflets expressing any political programmeШаблон:Sfn or print a magazine or newsletter.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL News section of its website published articles, commentary and information on forthcoming events and campaigns, which were then linked to through its social media.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL also used its website and eBay to sell branded merchandise, although pulled merchandise from its website in 2010.Шаблон:Sfnm
International and domestic links
The EDL formed links with ideologically similar groups internationally, particularly in Europe and the United States.Шаблон:Sfnm These included sectors of the US Tea Party movement;Шаблон:Sfnm it affiliated with the US-based Stop Islamization of America run by Pamela Geller and Robert Spencer.Шаблон:Sfn Geller served as the EDL's bridge to the Tea Party movement,Шаблон:Sfn but later distanced herself from it, claiming that the EDL contained neo-Nazi elements.Шаблон:Sfn When Moore was head of the EDL's Jewish Division, she established links with a far-right Jewish American group, the Jewish Task Force.Шаблон:Sfn In September 2010, EDL representatives joined demonstrations in New York City's Lower Manhattan to protest against the construction of the "Ground Zero Mosque",Шаблон:Sfn and in 2012 attended the "Stop Islamization of Nations" conference, again in New York City.Шаблон:Sfn
EDL members attended a Berlin rally organised by the Citizens' Movement Pax Europa in April 2010 in support of Geert Wilders, a right-wing, populist politician who had been charged for comparing Islam to Nazism.Шаблон:Sfnm In June 2010 two EDL representatives attended the Counter-Jihad 2010 conference held by the anti-Muslim International Civil Liberties Alliance in Zurich.Шаблон:Sfnm In October 2010, Robinson and other EDL members travelled to Amsterdam to protest outside Wilders's trial, although Wilders himself stated that he had no personal contact with the EDL. Here, Robinson announced plans for a "European Friendship Initiative" with the German, Dutch, and French Defence Leagues.Шаблон:Sfn In April 2011, Robinson and other EDL representatives attended a small rally in Lyon, alongside the French far-right group Bloc Identitaire; various participants, including Robinson, were arrested.Шаблон:Sfn In June 2011, it sent representatives to Pax Europa's counter-jihadist conference in Stuttgart.Шаблон:Sfn
It has partnered with the Welsh Defence League, Scottish Defence League, and Ulster Defence League, none of which had the same success as their English counterpart.Шаблон:Sfn The Scottish Defence League retained secret links with the BNP,[29] although in Scotland, it was difficult to bridge sectarian divisions between rival football firms.Шаблон:Sfn Sectarianism was also a major issue for the Ulster Defence League, which decided against holding any demonstrations in Northern Ireland itself.Шаблон:Sfn The Welsh Defence League faced divisions between its contingent from Swansea, some of whom were former members of Combat 18, and the Casuals United-contingent from Cardiff.Шаблон:Sfn After a BBC Wales investigation into the group revealed that a number of its members had neo-Nazi beliefs, in 2011 it was shut down and replaced by the Welsh Casuals.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL also established links to the Danish Defence League, which established 10 chapters within its first year of operation.[30] However recent attempts to establish a presence in Denmark and the Netherlands have failed to attract support and were respectively described as "a humiliation" and as "a damp squib".[31] The Norwegian Defence League (NDL) is a sister organisation of the EDL. There are strong connections between the two organisations, and the leadership of the EDL is also actively involved in the leadership of NDL.[32] Members of the NDL have on several occasions travelled to England to participate in EDL protests.[33][34]
The Australian Defence League (ADL) is an offshoot of the EDL that operates in Australia. However, it operates as a far-right, anti-Islamic street gang that has made terrorist threats, abused, doxxed and stalked Australian Muslims. The group was founded in Sydney in 2009 by Ralph Cerminara and, along with other far-right and anti-Islamic groups, has been involved in many anti-Islamic events in Australia. These include the Bendigo mosque protests against a proposal to build a mosque in Bendigo, Victoria, the distribution of anti-Islamic posters in Sydney and bomb threats against Islamic schools in Sydney.[35] It was also reported that some sailors engaging in Operation Sovereign Borders made anti-Islamic comments, which caused the Royal Australian Navy to launch an investigation into the ADL.[35] The ADL has also been banned from Facebook.
Membership and support
Numbers
The EDL's size has been difficult to gauge.Шаблон:Sfnm It has no official system of membership,Шаблон:Sfnm and thus no membership list.Шаблон:Sfnm Pilkington argued that the EDL's active membership, meaning those who attended its rallies and events, peaked between January and April 2010, when national demonstrations could accrue 2000 people, but by the end of that year this had declined to between 800 and 1000.Шаблон:Sfn By 2012, the group's national demonstrations were typically only attracting between 300 and 700 people.Шаблон:Sfn In 2011, Bartlett and Littler estimated that between 25,000 and 35,000 people were active EDL members, the highest concentration being in Greater London.Шаблон:Sfn In July 2010, the EDL had 22,000 Facebook followers;Шаблон:Sfn following the 2013 killing of Lee Rigby this reached 160,000,Шаблон:Sfn and as of February 2015 had risen further to 184,000.Шаблон:Sfn Its Facebook following was smaller than that of its rival, Britain First; in 2015, when the EDL had 181,000 followers, Britain First had 816,000.Шаблон:Sfn
Pilkington noted a "high turnover in the movement",Шаблон:Sfn while Winlow, Hall and Treadwell observed that members "drift in and out of its activities".Шаблон:Sfn Many of the EDL's supporters did not attend its street protests and were called "armchair warriors" by the group.Шаблон:Sfn Researchers found many supporters did not attend demonstrations because they feared violence, arrest, and the loss of employment,Шаблон:Sfn while many EDL women and older men saw demonstrations as primarily being events for young men.Шаблон:Sfn Involvement with the EDL could bring problems for its members which would dissuade their ongoing involvement; these included financial costs, the loss of friends, potential police scrutiny, and the restrictions it placed on their time.Шаблон:Sfn Various members described losing friendships and family relationships because of their involvement in the EDL, while others concealed their involvement fearing that they would lose their jobs.Шаблон:Sfnm Some expressed fears that social services would take their children into care if their EDL membership was known,Шаблон:Sfn or that they would be the target of violence from anti-fascists and Muslims.Шаблон:Sfn
Profile of members
Most EDL members are young, working-class, white men.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL unites three main constituencies: football hooligans, longstanding far-right activists, and a range of socio-economically marginalised people.Шаблон:Sfnm Copsey noted that "beyond their antagonism towards Islam, there is no ideology that binds this ragbag coalition together", and that the EDL was therefore always susceptible to fracture.Шаблон:Sfn For most EDL members, their membership is their first active involvement in a political group.Шаблон:Sfn
On the basis of her ethnographic research among the EDL, Pilkington found that 74% of her respondents were under 35, in contrast to the BNP and UKIP's older support base.Шаблон:Sfn 77% were male to 23% female.Шаблон:Sfn 51% described themselves as being "White English", and 23% as "White British".Шаблон:Sfn Only 6% had either completed or were studying for a higher education degree; 20% never completed secondary education.Шаблон:Sfn 49% were unemployed, 20% were in either part-time or irregular employment, and 11% were in full-time employment.Шаблон:Sfn 57% lived in social housing, in contrast to 17.5% of the general population.Шаблон:Sfn Pilkington found that EDL members had rarely been raised in "stable, strong and protective environments", that accounts of sexual abuse and violence in childhood were somewhat common, and that a number had been raised by grandparents or in foster care.Шаблон:Sfn She noted that very few regarded themselves as Christian.Шаблон:Sfn Pilkington also found that while all were critical of recent governments, none—barring the few neo-Nazis who attended EDL rallies but did not consider themselves members—desired a more authoritarian government, one-party state, or dictatorship.Шаблон:Sfn
In 2011, Bartlett and Littler surveyed 1,295 EDL Facebook supporters:Шаблон:Sfn 81% were male to 19% female; only 28% were over the age of thirty, and only 30% had attended either college or university.Шаблон:Sfn Bartlett and Littler found that EDL supporters were disproportionately unemployed.Шаблон:Sfn The issue that was most important to those surveyed was immigration, which they ranked higher than Islamic extremism.Шаблон:Sfn 34% voted for the BNP, 14% for UKIP, 14% for the Conservatives, and 9% for Labour.Шаблон:Sfn When asked to rank their three most important personal values, 36% said security, 34% said strong government, 30% said rule of law, and 26% said individual freedom.Шаблон:Sfn The surveyed EDL supporters also displayed significantly higher than average levels of distrust in the government, police, and judiciary.Шаблон:Sfn
Additional research by Matthew Goodwin, David Cutts, and Laurence Janta-Lupinski drew upon the data gathered by YouGov in an October 2012 survey. This compared 82 people who were members or were interested in joining with 298 "sympathisers" who agreed with the EDL's values but did not wish to join.Шаблон:Sfn Their research found "sympathisers" tended to be "older men, have low education levels, are skilled workers, read right-wing tabloid newspapers and support right-wing parties at elections", but that they were not "disproportionately more likely to be unemployed or live in social housing" than the broader population.Шаблон:Sfn Conversely, members and those wanting to join displayed "greater financial insecurity" and were more likely than average to be unemployed or in part-time employment, and more likely than average to live in social housing, rely on state benefits, and have no educational qualifications.Шаблон:Sfn
Members' views
EDL members persistently regard themselves as second-class citizens.Шаблон:Sfn Every EDL member Pilkington encountered believed the British state prioritised the needs of others—especially immigrants and Muslims—over those of themselves and gave ethnic minorities preferential treatment.Шаблон:Sfn Various members cited personal experiences where they believed that this had been the case.Шаблон:Sfn Members frequently referenced incidents of racist abuse, bullying, violence, and murder against white British people which they felt went under-reported or inappropriately punished.Шаблон:Sfn The most cited example was the 2004 murder of Kriss Donald, a racist attack committed by Pakistani men on a white teenager.Шаблон:Sfn They also saw this two-tiered system in their perception that ethnic minorities were encouraged to display their own cultural symbols while the white English were not, citing examples in which their display of St George's flag had been censured amid accusations of racism.Шаблон:Sfn
Most EDL members whom Busher encountered "had a highly binary interpretation of the world, seeing themselves as engaged in a millennial struggle between good and evil – an existential fight for the future of their country and culture."Шаблон:Sfn Busher noted that most activists rarely or never presented this struggle in terms of biological race, even when expressing anti-migrant sentiments.Шаблон:Sfn Both Busher and Pilkington encountered EDL members who came to the group from other sectors of the far-right and who claimed their views moderated as a result.Шаблон:Sfnm Busher suggested that this might be because the EDL ideology's shifted some individual's hostility from being directed at non-white Britons broadly toward Muslims specifically.Шаблон:Sfn At the same time, he noted that as the EDL fragmented, members of some of its splinter groups adopted increasingly extreme views.Шаблон:Sfn
EDL members usually reject the description of them being "far-right",Шаблон:Sfnm or "racist".Шаблон:Sfnm They often place great importance on being working-class and display clear bonds with their local communities.Шаблон:Sfn Many cite coming from families who were Labour voters and sometimes trade unionists,Шаблон:Sfn but also express anger at Labour, regarding it as the party of multiculturalism, political correctness, and mass immigration.Шаблон:Sfn Among EDL members, there is much talk of "stupid lefties" who were believed to hate the white working class.Шаблон:Sfn
Causal factors
Meadowcroft and Morrow suggested that the EDL overcame the collective action problem by offering its members "access to violent conflict, increased self-worth and group solidarity".Шаблон:Sfn They argued that for many working-class young men with "little meaning or cause for pride" in their lives, EDL membership allows them to "reimagine" themselves as "heroic freedom fighters" battling to save their nation from its fundamental enemy, Islam, "thereby bolstering their sense of self-worth."Шаблон:Sfn They also argued that EDL membership gave individuals a sense of group identity and community which was otherwise lacking.Шаблон:Sfn
Winlow, Hall, and Treadwell argued that the EDL's growth among the white working-class reflected how this sector of society—which had predominantly aligned with the political left during the 20th century—was increasingly shifting to the far-right in the early 21st.Шаблон:Sfn These sociologists attributed this to changes within the mainstream British left since the 1990s: following the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Britain's mainstream left had ceased talking about regulating capitalism,Шаблон:Sfn Tony Blair's New Labour project had shifted Labour's focus from its traditional working-class base towards middle-class swing voters,Шаблон:Sfn and middle-class leftist politicians were increasingly regarding white working-class cultural values as an embarrassment.Шаблон:Sfn Britain's white working classes increasingly believed that public policy favoured minorities—LGBT people, ethnic, and religious minorities—through affirmative action employment, drives to "diversify" workforces, and favourable media coverage. They also thought that the state had encouraged these groups to present themselves as victims.Шаблон:Sfn EDL supporters believed that the heterosexual white working class were left as the only cultural group without vocal political representation.Шаблон:Sfn
These sociologists argued that economic shifts had seen traditional working-class jobs increasingly replaced by low-grade service sector jobs, often non-unionised and on zero hour contracts;Шаблон:Sfn EDL members were aware of this, believing that their parents and grandparents' generations had had a better quality of life.Шаблон:Sfn According to Winlow, Hall and Treadwell, it was the resulting "background of broadly felt anger and frustration" among the white working class, a "sense of disempowerment, abandonment and growing irrelevance", from which the EDL developed.Шаблон:Sfn The EDL provided these working-class individuals with "a very basic means of understanding their frustrations", blaming their economic insecurity and sense of cultural marginalisation on Muslims and immigrants.Шаблон:Sfn They cautioned that unless the left succeeded in reattaching itself to the white working-class then the UK would enter a period dominated by the political right.Шаблон:Sfn
Reception and impact
The EDL represented "the biggest populist street movement in a generation" in Britain,Шаблон:Sfn reviving a tradition of far-right street protest that had been largely dormant during the 2000s.Шаблон:Sfn The political scientists Matthew J. Goodwin, David Cutts, and Laurence Janta-Lipinski suggested that from 2009 to 2013, it represented "the most significant anti-Islam movement in Europe".Шаблон:Sfn In 2011, James Treadwell and Jon Garland described the EDL as "one of the most notable political developments of the past few years",Шаблон:Sfn while in 2013, the political scientist Julian Richards stated that the EDL had been "one of the more intriguing developments on the Far Right in recent years".Шаблон:Sfn
Although the majority of the British population did not share all of the EDL's views on Islam,Шаблон:Sfn the group's rhetoric resonated with and fed into broader animosity towards Muslims in British society.Шаблон:Sfnm The 2010 British Social Attitudes Survey found that 55% would be bothered by having a mosque built in their street,Шаблон:Sfn while a 2011 survey found 48% of UK citizens agreeing with the statement that Islam was "a religion of intolerance".Шаблон:Sfn Various commentators attributed this sentiment to elements of the tabloid media, such as the Daily Mail, The Sun, and the Daily Star.Шаблон:Sfnm The EDL itself faced derision from much of the mainstream media,Шаблон:Sfn with EDL members expressing anger at how they felt the mainstream media misrepresented them by, for instance, interviewing those members at demonstrations who were evidently drunk or inarticulate.Шаблон:Sfn Those outside the EDL typically perceived the group as being fascist, racist, or mindlessly violent.Шаблон:Sfn A 2012 poll by Extremis and YouGov found that only a third of those surveyed had heard of the EDL, and that of those who had, only 11% would consider joining.Шаблон:Sfn Of that third, 74% considered the group racist.Шаблон:Sfn[36][37]
Opposition
The government regarded the EDL as a major threat to societal cohesion and integration,Шаблон:Sfn and there were fears that the group sought to spark racially aggravated urban disturbances similar to those of 2001.Шаблон:Sfn In 2009, the UK Communities Secretary John Denham condemned the EDL and compared its tactics to those used by the British Union of Fascists in the 1930s.Шаблон:Sfn In 2010, the Conservative Party leader—and subsequent Prime Minister—David Cameron described the EDL as "terrible people", adding that "if we needed to ban them, we would".Шаблон:Sfn[38] Later that year, it rejected calls to ban the group; as the EDL did not openly glorify terrorism it could not be proscribed under Britain's counter-terrorism legislation.Шаблон:Sfn Police reported that EDL activities hampered their own counter-terror operations among British Muslim communities.Шаблон:Sfn[39][40]
Foremost among the counter-protesters at EDL events was Unite Against Fascism (UAF),Шаблон:Sfn who mirrored the tactics used by the Anti-Nazi League in the 1970s.Шаблон:Sfn Dominated by the Socialist Workers Party, the UAF had a largely Marxist interpretation of the EDL.Шаблон:Sfnm The UAF believed in opposing the EDL at every juncture so as to demoralise its members;Шаблон:Sfn the UAF's common chant was "Fascist scum off our streets".Шаблон:Sfn Political scientists noted that this confrontational approach gave the EDL exactly what it wanted,Шаблон:Sfn and that it could contribute to further radicalisation on all sides.Шаблон:Sfnm
Another anti-fascist group, Hope not Hate, did not believe every EDL rally must meet forceful opposition.Шаблон:Sfn It argued that anti-fascists should adapt their tactics to the wishes of local community members in a given area,Шаблон:Sfn and emphasised bringing together different religious and ethnic groups in peaceful protest.Шаблон:Sfn Hope not Hate also foregrounded the need to establish long-term strategies to counter the EDL and far-right, focusing on reconnecting disenfranchised people with the established political process.Шаблон:Sfn Online, various leftist websites played a role in monitoring the EDL's activities.Шаблон:Sfn
Britain's Muslims were divided on how to respond to the EDL; some Muslims joined UAF counter-protests, although other Islamic voices called for Muslims to avoid the protests altogether.Шаблон:Sfn Another response was the formation of the Muslim Defence League in 2010, the stated purpose of which was to oppose Islamophobia and counter misinformation about Islam. In various instances, it supported UAF counter-protests.Шаблон:Sfnm In 2013, six Islamists pleaded guilty to plotting a bomb and gun attack on an EDL march in Dewsbury.[41] Other religious communities also responded to the EDL. A group called Sikhs Against the EDL was formed in response to the involvement of some Sikhs in the organisation,Шаблон:Sfn while the Board of Deputies of British Jews expressed disappointment at the formation of the EDL Jewish Division.Шаблон:Sfn
References
Notes
Sources
- Шаблон:Cite contribution
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite report
- Шаблон:Cite journal
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- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
Further reading
External links
Шаблон:English Defence League Шаблон:UK far right Шаблон:Portalbar Шаблон:Authority control
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Шаблон:Cite web
- Шаблон:Cite news
- Шаблон:Cite web - ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
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- ↑ Шаблон:Cite press release
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- Шаблон:Cite news - ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite newsШаблон:Cbignore
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- ↑ 35,0 35,1 Шаблон:Cite news
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