Английская Википедия:English phonology

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Redirect Шаблон:Self-reference Шаблон:English phonology topics Шаблон:IPA notice English phonology is the system of speech sounds used in spoken English. Like many other languages, English has wide variation in pronunciation, both historically and from dialect to dialect. In general, however, the regional dialects of English share a largely similar (but not identical) phonological system. Among other things, most dialects have vowel reduction in unstressed syllables and a complex set of phonological features that distinguish fortis and lenis consonants (stops, affricates, and fricatives).

Phonological analysis of English often concentrates on or uses, as a reference point, one or more of the prestige or standard accents, such as Received Pronunciation for England, General American for the United States, and General Australian for Australia. Nevertheless, many other dialects of English are spoken, which have developed independently from these standardized accents, particularly regional dialects. Information about these standardized accents functions only as a limited guide to all of English phonology, which one can later expand upon once one becomes more familiar with some of the many other dialects of English that are spoken.

Phonemes

A phoneme of a language or dialect is an abstraction of a speech sound or of a group of different sounds that are all perceived to have the same function by speakers of that particular language or dialect. For example, the English word through consists of three phonemes: the initial "th" sound, the "r" sound, and a vowel sound. The phonemes in that and many other English words do not always correspond directly to the letters used to spell them (English orthography is not as strongly phonemic as that of many other languages).

The number and distribution of phonemes in English vary from dialect to dialect, and also depend on the interpretation of the individual researcher. The number of consonant phonemes is generally put at 24 (or slightly more depending on the dialect). The number of vowels is subject to greater variation; in the system presented on this page there are 20–25 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 19–21 in Australian English. The pronunciation keys used in dictionaries generally contain a slightly greater number of symbols than this, to take account of certain sounds used in foreign words and certain noticeable distinctions that may not be—strictly speaking—phonemic.

Consonants

The following table shows the 24 consonant phonemes found in most dialects of English, plus Шаблон:IPA, whose distribution is more limited. Fortis consonants are always voiceless, aspirated in syllable onset (except in clusters beginning with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA), and sometimes also glottalized to an extent in syllable coda (most likely to occur with Шаблон:IPA, see T-glottalization), while lenis consonants are always unaspirated and un-glottalized, and generally partially or fully voiced. The alveolars are usually apical, i.e. pronounced with the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the roof of the mouth, though some speakers produce them laminally, i.e. with the blade of the tongue.Шаблон:Sfnp

Labial Dental Alveolar Post-
alveolar 		Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA link
Plosive/
affricate 		Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Fricative Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link (Шаблон:IPA link)Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn
Шаблон:Small Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Approximant Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA linkШаблон:Efn

Шаблон:Notelist

Consonant examples

The following table shows typical examples of the occurrence of the above consonant phonemes in words, using minimal pairs where possible.

Fortis Lenis
Шаблон:IPAslink pit Шаблон:IPAslink bit
Шаблон:IPAslink tin Шаблон:IPAslink din
Шаблон:IPAslink cut Шаблон:IPAslink gut
Шаблон:IPAslink cheap Шаблон:IPAslink jeep
Шаблон:IPAslink fat Шаблон:IPAslink vat
Шаблон:IPAslink thigh Шаблон:IPAslink thy
Шаблон:IPAslink sap Шаблон:IPAslink zap
Шаблон:IPAslink Aleutian Шаблон:IPAslink allusion
Шаблон:IPAslink loch
Шаблон:IPAslink ham
Шаблон:IPAslink hum
Шаблон:IPAslink Hun
Шаблон:IPAslink hung
Шаблон:IPAslink your
Шаблон:IPAslink wore
Шаблон:IPAslink rump
Шаблон:IPAslink lump

Sonorants

Obstruents

In most dialects, the fortis stops and affricate Шаблон:IPA have various different allophones, and are distinguished from the lenis stops and affricate Шаблон:IPA by several phonetic features.Шаблон:Sfnp

Vowels

English, much like other Germanic languages, has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes, and in addition the vowels of English differ considerably between dialects. Consequently, corresponding vowels may be transcribed with various symbols depending on the dialect under consideration. When considering English as a whole, lexical sets are often used, each named by a word containing the vowel or vowels in question. For example, the Шаблон:Sc2 set consists of words which, like lot, have Шаблон:IPA in Received Pronunciation and Шаблон:IPA in General American. The "Шаблон:Sc2 vowel" then refers to the vowel that appears in those words in whichever dialect is being considered, or (at a greater level of abstraction) to a diaphoneme, which represents this interdialectal correspondence. A commonly-used system of lexical sets, devised by John C. Wells, is presented below; for each set, the corresponding phonemes are given for RP and General American, using the notation that will be used on this page.

For a table that shows the pronunciations of these vowels in a wider range of English dialects, see IPA chart for English dialects.

The following tables show the vowel phonemes of three standard varieties of English. The notation system used here for Received Pronunciation (RP) is fairly standard; the others less so. The feature descriptions given here (front, close, etc.) are abstracted somewhat; the actual pronunciations of these vowels are somewhat more accurately conveyed by the IPA symbols used (see Vowel for a chart indicating the meanings of these symbols; though note also the points listed below the following tables). The symbols given in the table are traditional but redirect to their modern implementation.

Шаблон:Notelist

The differences between these tables can be explained as follows:

Other points to be noted are these:

Allophones of vowels

Listed here are some of the significant cases of allophony of vowels found within standard English dialects.

Unstressed syllables

Шаблон:Further

Unstressed syllables in English may contain almost any vowel, but in practice vowels in stressed and unstressed syllables tend to use different inventories of phonemes. In particular, long vowels are used less often in unstressed syllables than stressed syllables. Additionally there are certain sounds—characterized by central position and weakness—that are particularly often found as the nuclei of unstressed syllables. These include:

Vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is a significant feature of English. Syllables of the types listed above often correspond to a syllable containing a different vowel ("full vowel") used in other forms of the same morpheme where that syllable is stressed. For example, the first o in photograph, being stressed, is pronounced with the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel, but in photography, where it is unstressed, it is reduced to schwa. Also, certain common words (a, an, of, for, etc.) are pronounced with a schwa when they are unstressed, although they have different vowels when they are in a stressed position (see Weak and strong forms in English).

Some unstressed syllables, however, retain full (unreduced) vowels, i.e. vowels other than those listed above. Examples are the Шаблон:IPA in ambition and the Шаблон:IPA in finite. Some phonologists regard such syllables as not being fully unstressed (they may describe them as having tertiary stress); some dictionaries have marked such syllables as having secondary stress. However linguists such as LadefogedШаблон:Sfnp and Шаблон:Harvcoltxt regard this as a difference purely of vowel quality and not of stress,Шаблон:Sfnp and thus argue that vowel reduction itself is phonemic in English. Examples of words where vowel reduction seems to be distinctive for some speakersШаблон:Sfnp include chickaree vs. chicory (the latter has the reduced vowel of Шаблон:Sc2, whereas the former has the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel without reduction), and Pharaoh vs. farrow (both have the Шаблон:Sc2 vowel, but in the latter word it may reduce to Шаблон:IPA).

Lexical stress

Шаблон:Main Lexical stress is phonemic in English. For example, the noun increase and the verb increase are distinguished by the positioning of the stress on the first syllable in the former, and on the second syllable in the latter. (See initial-stress-derived noun.) Stressed syllables in English are louder than non-stressed syllables, as well as being longer and having a higher pitch.

In traditional approaches, in any English word consisting of more than one syllable, each syllable is ascribed one of three degrees of stress: primary, secondary or unstressed. Ordinarily, in each such word there will be exactly one syllable with primary stress, possibly one syllable having secondary stress, and the remainder are unstressed (unusually-long words may have multiple syllables with secondary stress). For example, the word amazing has primary stress on the second syllable, while the first and third syllables are unstressed, whereas the word organization has primary stress on the fourth syllable, secondary stress on the first, and the second, third, and fifth unstressed. This is often shown in pronunciation keys using the IPA symbols for primary and secondary stress (which are ˈ and ˌ respectively), placed before the syllables to which they apply. The two words just given may therefore be represented (in RP) as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

Some analysts identify an additional level of stress (tertiary stress). This is generally ascribed to syllables that are pronounced with less force than those with secondary stress, but nonetheless contain a "full" or "unreduced" vowel (vowels that are considered to be reduced are listed under Шаблон:Slink above). Hence the third syllable of organization, if pronounced with Шаблон:IPA as shown above (rather than being reduced to Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA), might be said to have tertiary stress. (The precise identification of secondary and tertiary stress differs between analyses; dictionaries do not generally show tertiary stress, although some have taken the approach of marking all syllables with unreduced vowels as having at least secondary stress.)

In some analyses, then, the concept of lexical stress may become conflated with that of vowel reduction. An approach that attempts to separate both is provided by Peter Ladefoged, who states that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for vowel reduction.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In this approach, the distinction between primary and secondary stress is regarded as a phonetic or prosodic detail rather than a phonemic feature – primary stress is seen as an example of the predictable "tonic" stress that falls on the final stressed syllable of a prosodic unit. For more details of this analysis, see Stress and vowel reduction in English.

For stress as a prosodic feature (emphasis of particular words within utterances), see Шаблон:Slink below.

Phonotactics

Phonotactics is the study of the sequences of phonemes that occur in languages and the sound structures that they form. In this study it is usual to represent consonants in general with the letter C and vowels with the letter V, so that a syllable such as 'be' is described as having CV structure. The IPA symbol used to show a division between syllables is the full stop Шаблон:Angbr IPA. Syllabification is the process of dividing continuous speech into discrete syllables, a process in which the position of a syllable division is not always easy to decide upon.

Most languages of the world syllabify Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sequences as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, with consonants preferentially acting as the onset of a syllable containing the following vowel. According to one view, English is unusual in this regard, in that stressed syllables attract following consonants, so that Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA syllabify as Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, as long as the consonant cluster Шаблон:IPA is a possible syllable coda; in addition, Шаблон:IPA preferentially syllabifies with the preceding vowel even when both syllables are unstressed, so that Шаблон:IPA occurs as Шаблон:IPA. This is the analysis used in the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary.Шаблон:Sfnp However, this view is not widely accepted, as explained in the following section.

Syllable structure

English allows clusters of up to three consonants in the syllable onset and up to four consonants in the syllable coda,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp giving a general syllable structure of (C)3V(C)4, a potential example being strengths Шаблон:IPA (although this word has variant pronunciations with only 3 coda consonants, such as Шаблон:IPA). A five-consonant coda may occur in the word angsts, but this is a highly exceptional case, as the word is both infrequent and not always pronounced with five final segmentsШаблон:Sfnp (it can be analyzed as a VC4 syllableШаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:IPA rather than as VC5 Шаблон:IPA). From the phonetic point of view, the analysis of syllable structures is a complex task: because of widespread occurrences of articulatory overlap, English speakers rarely produce an audible release of individual consonants in consonant clusters.Шаблон:Sfnp This coarticulation can lead to articulatory gestures that seem very much like deletions or complete assimilations. For example, hundred pounds may sound like Шаблон:IPA and jumped back (in slow speech, Шаблон:IPA) may sound like Шаблон:IPA, but X-rayШаблон:Sfnp and electropalatographicШаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp studies demonstrate that inaudible and possibly weakened contacts or lingual gestures may still be made. Thus the second Шаблон:IPA in hundred pounds does not entirely assimilate to a labial place of articulation, rather the labial gesture co-occurs with the alveolar one; the "missing" Шаблон:IPA in jumped back may still be articulated, though not heard.

Division into syllables is a difficult area, and different theories have been proposed. A widely accepted approach is the maximal onset principle:Шаблон:Sfnp this states that, subject to certain constraints, any consonants in between vowels should be assigned to the following syllable. Thus the word leaving should be divided Шаблон:IPA rather than *Шаблон:IPA, and hasty is Шаблон:IPA rather than *Шаблон:IPA or *Шаблон:IPA. However, when such a division results in an onset cluster that is not allowed in English, the division must respect this. Thus if the word extra were divided *Шаблон:IPA the resulting onset of the second syllable would be Шаблон:IPA, a cluster that does not occur initially in English. The division Шаблон:IPA is therefore preferred. If assigning a consonant or consonants to the following syllable would result in the preceding syllable ending in an unreduced short vowel, this is avoided. Thus the word lemma should be divided Шаблон:IPA and not *Шаблон:IPA, even though the latter division gives the maximal onset to the following syllable.

In some cases, no solution is completely satisfactory: for example, in British English (RP) the word hurry could be divided Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, but the former would result in an analysis with a syllable-final Шаблон:IPA (which is held to be non-occurring) while the latter would result in a syllable final Шаблон:IPA (which is said not to occur in this accent). Some phonologists have suggested a compromise analysis where the consonant in the middle belongs to both syllables, and is described as ambisyllabic.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp In this way, it is possible to suggest an analysis of hurry that comprises the syllables Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, the medial Шаблон:IPA being ambisyllabic. Where the division coincides with a word boundary, or the boundary between elements of a compound word, it is not usual in the case of dictionaries to insist on the maximal onset principle in a way that divides words in a counter-intuitive way; thus the word hardware would be divided Шаблон:IPA by the maximal onset principle, but dictionaries prefer the division Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp

In the approach used by the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, WellsШаблон:Sfnp claims that consonants syllabify with the preceding rather than following vowel when the preceding vowel is the nucleus of a more salient syllable, with stressed syllables being the most salient, reduced syllables the least, and full unstressed vowels ("secondary stress") intermediate. But there are lexical differences as well, frequently but not exclusively with compound words. For example, in dolphin and selfish, Wells argues that the stressed syllable ends in Шаблон:IPA, but in shellfish, the Шаблон:IPA belongs with the following syllable: Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, but Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA, where the Шаблон:IPA is a little longer and the Шаблон:IPA is not reduced. Similarly, in toe-strap Wells argues that the second Шаблон:IPA is a full plosive, as usual in syllable onset, whereas in toast-rack the second Шаблон:IPA is in many dialects reduced to the unreleased allophone it takes in syllable codas, or even elided: Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA; likewise nitrate Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA with a voiceless Шаблон:IPA (and for some people an affricated tr as in tree), vs night-rate Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA with a voiced Шаблон:IPA. Cues of syllable boundaries include aspiration of syllable onsets and (in the US) flapping of coda Шаблон:IPA (a tease Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA vs. at ease Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA), epenthetic stops like Шаблон:IPA in syllable codas (fence Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA but inside Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA), and r-colored vowels when the Шаблон:IPA is in the coda vs. labialization when it is in the onset (key-ring Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA but fearing Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA).

Onset

The following can occur as the onset:

All single-consonant phonemes except Шаблон:IPA
Stop plus approximant other than Шаблон:IPA:

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

play, blood, clean, glove, prize, bring, tree,Шаблон:Efn dream,Шаблон:Efn crowd, green, twin, dwarf, Guam, quick, puissance
Voiceless fricative or Шаблон:IPA plus approximant other than Шаблон:IPA:Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

floor, sleep, thlipsis,Шаблон:Efn schlep, friend, three, shrimp, what,Шаблон:Efn swing, thwart, voilà
Consonant other than Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA plus Шаблон:IPA (before Шаблон:IPA or its modified/reduced forms):Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn

pure, beautiful, tube,Шаблон:Efn during,Шаблон:Efn cute, argue, music, new,Шаблон:Efn few, view, thew,Шаблон:Efn suit,Шаблон:Efn Zeus,Шаблон:Efn huge, luridШаблон:Efn
Шаблон:IPA plus voiceless stop:Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

speak, stop, skill
Шаблон:IPA plus nasal other than Шаблон:IPA:Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

smile, snow
Шаблон:IPA plus voiceless non-sibilant fricative:Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA

sphere, sthenic
Шаблон:IPA plus voiceless stop plus approximant:Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA,Шаблон:Efn Шаблон:IPA

split, sclera, spring, street, scream, square, spew, student,Шаблон:Efn skewer
Шаблон:IPA plus nasal plus approximant:

Шаблон:IPA

smew
Шаблон:IPA plus voiceless non-sibilant fricative plus approximant:Шаблон:Efn

Шаблон:IPA

sphragistics

Notes:

Шаблон:Notelist

Other onsets

Certain English onsets appear only in contractions: e.g. Шаблон:IPA ('sblood), and Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA ('swounds or 'dswounds). Some, such as Шаблон:IPA (pshaw), Шаблон:IPA (fwoosh), or Шаблон:IPA (vroom), can occur in interjections. An archaic voiceless fricative plus nasal exists, Шаблон:IPA (fnese), as does an archaic Шаблон:IPA (snew).

Several additional onsets occur in loan words (with varying degrees of anglicization) such as Шаблон:IPA (bwana), Шаблон:IPA (moiré), Шаблон:IPA (noire), Шаблон:IPA (zwitterion), Шаблон:IPA (zwieback), Шаблон:IPA (Dvorak), Шаблон:IPA (kvetch), Шаблон:IPA (schvartze), Шаблон:IPA (Tver), Шаблон:IPA (Zwickau), Шаблон:IPA (Kjell)Шаблон:Dubious, Шаблон:IPA (Kshatriya), Шаблон:IPA (Tlaloc), Шаблон:IPA (Vladimir), Шаблон:IPA (zloty), Шаблон:IPA (Tskhinvali), Шаблон:IPA (Hmong), Шаблон:IPA (Khmer), and Шаблон:IPA (Nganasan).

Some clusters of this type can be converted to regular English phonotactics by simplifying the cluster: e.g. Шаблон:IPA (dziggetai), Шаблон:IPA (Hrolf), Шаблон:IPA (croissant), Шаблон:IPA (Nguyen), Шаблон:IPA (pfennig), Шаблон:IPA (phthalic), Шаблон:IPA (tsunami), Шаблон:IPA (!kung), and Шаблон:IPA (Xhosa).

Others can be replaced by native clusters differing only in voice: Шаблон:IPA (sbirro), and Шаблон:IPA (sgraffito).

Nucleus

The following can occur as the nucleus:

Coda

Most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA can be extended with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA representing the morpheme -s/-z. Similarly, most (in theory, all) of the following except those that end with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA can be extended with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA representing the morpheme -t/-d.

Шаблон:Harvcoltxt argues that a variety of syllable codas are possible in English, even Шаблон:IPA in words like entry Шаблон:IPA and sundry Шаблон:IPA, with Шаблон:IPA being treated as affricates along the lines of Шаблон:IPA. He argues that the traditional assumption that pre-vocalic consonants form a syllable with the following vowel is due to the influence of languages like French and Latin, where syllable structure is CVC.CVC regardless of stress placement. Disregarding such contentious cases, which do not occur at the ends of words, the following sequences can occur as the coda:

The single consonant phonemes except Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and, in non-rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA  
Lateral approximant plus stop or affricate: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA help, bulb, belt, hold, belch, indulge, milk
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA plus stop or affricate: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA harp, orb, fort, beard, arch, large, mark, morgue
Lateral approximant + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, (Шаблон:IPA) golf, solve, wealth, else, bells, Welsh, (stealth (v.))
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA dwarf, carve, north, birth (v.), force, Mars, marsh
Lateral approximant + nasal: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA film, kiln
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA + nasal or lateral: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA arm, born, snarl
Nasal + homorganic stop or affricate: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA; some varieties also allow Шаблон:IPA jump, tent, end, lunch, lounge, pink, sing
Nasal + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, (Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA, (Шаблон:IPA), Шаблон:IPA; some varieties also allow Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA triumph, Thames, warmth, (saunf), month, (prince), bronze, length, strength
Voiceless fricative plus voiceless stop: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA left, crisp, lost, ask, smashed, smithed
Voiced fricative plus voiced stop: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA blazed, writhed
Two or three voiceless fricatives: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA fifth, fifths
Two voiceless stops: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA opt, act
Two voiceless stops + fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA opts, acts
Stop plus fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA depth, lapse, eighth, klutz, width, adze, box
Lateral approximant + two or three consonants: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA filmed, sculpt, alps, twelfth,Шаблон:Efn waltz, whilst, mulct, calx
In rhotic varieties, Шаблон:IPA + two consonants: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA farmed, warmth, excerpt, corpse, mourned, quartz, horst, world, infarct
Nasal + homorganic stop + stop or fricative: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA in some varieties prompt, glimpse, chintz, thousandth,Шаблон:Efn distinct, jinx, length
Nasal + homorganic stop + two fricatives: Шаблон:IPA thousandths
Nasal + non-homorganic stop: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA dreamt, hemmed, hanged
Three obstruents: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA sixth, next
Four obstruents: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA sixths, sixthed, texts
  • Notes:

Шаблон:Notelist

For some speakers, a fricative before Шаблон:IPA is elided so that these never appear phonetically: Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA.

Syllable-level patterns

Word-level patterns

Prosody

The prosodic features of English – stress, rhythm, and intonation – can be described as follows.

Prosodic stress

Prosodic stress is extra stress given to words or syllables when they appear in certain positions in an utterance, or when they receive special emphasis.

According to Ladefoged's analysis (as referred to under Шаблон:Slink above), English normally has prosodic stress on the final stressed syllable in an intonation unit. This is said to be the origin of the distinction traditionally made at the lexical level between primary and secondary stress: when a word like admiration (traditionally transcribed as something like Шаблон:IPA) is spoken in isolation, or at the end of a sentence, the syllable ra (the final stressed syllable) is pronounced with greater force than the syllable ad, although when the word is not pronounced with this final intonation there may be no difference between the levels of stress of these two syllables.

Prosodic stress can shift for various pragmatic functions, such as focus or contrast. For instance, in the dialogue Is it brunch tomorrow? No, it's dinner tomorrow, the extra stress shifts from the last stressed syllable of the sentence, tomorrow, to the last stressed syllable of the emphasized word, dinner.

Grammatical function words are usually prosodically unstressed, although they can acquire stress when emphasized (as in Did you find the cat? Well, I found a cat). Many English function words have distinct strong and weak pronunciations; for example, the word a in the last example is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, while the more common unstressed a is pronounced Шаблон:IPA. See Weak and strong forms in English.

Rhythm

English is claimed to be a stress-timed language. That is, stressed syllables tend to appear with a more or less regular rhythm, while non-stressed syllables are shortened to accommodate this. For example, in the sentence One make of car is better than another, the syllables one, make, car, bett- and Шаблон:Notatypo will be stressed and relatively long, while the other syllables will be considerably shorter. The theory of stress-timing predicts that each of the three unstressed syllables in between bett- and Шаблон:Notatypo will be shorter than the syllable of between make and car, because three syllables must fit into the same amount of time as that available for of. However, it should not be assumed that all varieties of English are stress-timed in this way. The English spoken in the West Indies,Шаблон:Sfnp in AfricaШаблон:Sfnp and in IndiaШаблон:Sfnp are probably better characterized as syllable-timed, though the lack of an agreed scientific test for categorizing an accent or language as stress-timed or syllable-timed may lead one to doubt the value of such a characterization.Шаблон:Sfnp

Intonation

Шаблон:Further

Phonological contrasts in intonation can be said to be found in three different and independent domains. In the work of HallidayШаблон:Sfnp the following names are proposed:

  • Tonality for the distribution of continuous speech into tone groups.
  • Tonicity for the placing of the principal accent on a particular syllable of a word, making it the tonic syllable. This is the domain also referred to as prosodic stress or sentence stress.
  • Tone for the choice of pitch movement on the tonic syllable. (The use of the term tone in this sense should not be confused with the tone of tone languages, such as Chinese.)

These terms ("the Three Ts") have been used in more recent work,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp though they have been criticized for being difficult to remember.Шаблон:Sfnp American systems such as ToBI also identify contrasts involving boundaries between intonation phrases (Halliday's tonality), placement of pitch accent (tonicity), and choice of tone or tones associated with the pitch accent (tone).

Example of phonological contrast involving placement of intonation unit boundaries (boundary marked by comma): Шаблон:Ordered list

Example of phonological contrast involving placement of tonic syllable (marked by capital letters): Шаблон:Ordered list

Example of phonological contrast (British English) involving choice of tone (\ = falling tone, \/ = fall-rise tone) Шаблон:Ordered list

There is typically a contrast involving tone between wh-questions and yes/no questions, the former having a falling tone (e.g. "Where did you \PUT it?") and the latter a rising tone (e.g. "Are you going /OUT?"), though studies of spontaneous speech have shown frequent exceptions to this rule.Шаблон:Sfnp Tag questions asking for information are said to carry rising tones (e.g. "They are coming on Tuesday, /AREN'T they?") while those asking for confirmation have falling tone (e.g. "Your name's John, \ISN'T it.").

History of English pronunciation

Шаблон:Main

The pronunciation system of English has undergone many changes throughout the history of the language, from the phonological system of Old English, to that of Middle English, through to that of the present day. Variation between dialects has always been significant. Former pronunciations of many words are reflected in their spellings, as English orthography has generally not kept pace with phonological changes since the Middle English period.

The English consonant system has been relatively stable over time, although a number of significant changes have occurred. Examples include the loss (in most dialects) of the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA sounds still reflected by the Шаблон:Angbr in words like night and taught, and the splitting of voiced and voiceless allophones of fricatives into separate phonemes (such as the two different [[Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩|phonemes represented by Шаблон:Angbr]]). There have also been many changes in consonant clusters, mostly reductions, for instance those that produced the usual modern pronunciations of such letter combinations as Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:Angbr and [[English wh|Шаблон:Angbr]].

The development of vowels has been much more complex. One of the most notable series of changes is that known as the Great Vowel Shift, which began around the late 14th century. Here the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in words like price and mouth became diphthongized, and other long vowels became higher: Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA (as in meet), Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA and later Шаблон:IPA (as in name), Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA (as in goose), and Шаблон:IPA became Шаблон:IPA and later Шаблон:IPA (in RP now Шаблон:IPA; as in bone). These shifts are responsible for the modern pronunciations of many written vowel combinations, including those involving a [[silent e|silent final Шаблон:Angbr]].

Many other changes in vowels have taken place over the centuries (see the separate articles on the low back, high back and high front vowels, short A, and diphthongs). These various changes mean that many words that formerly rhymed (and may be expected to rhyme based on their spelling) no longer do.Шаблон:Sfnp For example, in Shakespeare's time, following the Great Vowel Shift, food, good and blood all had the vowel Шаблон:IPA, but in modern pronunciation good has been shortened to Шаблон:IPA, while blood has been shortened and lowered to Шаблон:IPA in most accents. In other cases, words that were formerly distinct have come to be pronounced the same – examples of such mergers include meet–meat, pane–pain and toe–tow.

Controversial issues

Velar nasal

The phonemic status of the velar nasal consonant Шаблон:IPA is disputed; one analysis claims that the only nasal phonemes in English are Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, while Шаблон:IPA is an allophone of Шаблон:IPA found before velar consonants. Evidence in support of this analysis is found in accents of the north-west Midlands of England where Шаблон:IPA is found only before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, with sung being pronounced as Шаблон:IPA. However, in most other accents of English sung is pronounced Шаблон:IPA, producing a three-way phonemic contrast sum – sun – sung Шаблон:IPA and supporting the analysis of the phonemic status of Шаблон:IPA. In support of treating the velar nasal as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt claims on psychological grounds that Шаблон:IPA did not form part of a series of three nasal consonants: "no naïve English-speaking person can be made to feel in his bones that it belongs to a single series with m and n. ... It still feels like ƞg."Шаблон:Sfnp More recent writers have indicated that analyses of Шаблон:IPA as an allophone of Шаблон:IPA may still have merit, even though Шаблон:IPA may appear both with and without a following velar consonant; in such analyses, an underlying Шаблон:IPA that is deleted by a phonological rule would account for occurrences of Шаблон:IPA not followed by a velar consonant.Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfn Thus the phonemic representation of sing would be Шаблон:IPA and that of singer is Шаблон:IPA; in order to reach the phonetic form Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, it is necessary to apply a rule that changes Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA before Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, then a second rule that deletes Шаблон:IPA when it follows Шаблон:IPA.

These produce the following results:

Word Underlying phonological form Phonetic form
sing Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
singer Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
singing Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

However, these rules do not predict the following phonetic forms:

Word Underlying phonological form Phonetic form
anger Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
finger Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
hunger Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

In the above cases, the Шаблон:IPA is not deleted. The words are all single morphemes, unlike singer and singing which are composed of two morphemes, sing plus -er or -ing. Rule 2 can be amended to include a symbol # for a morpheme boundary (including word boundary):

2. Шаблон:IPA

This rule then applies to sing, singer and singing but not to anger, finger, or hunger.

According to this rule, the words hangar ('shed for aircraft'), which contains no internal morpheme boundary, and hanger ('object for hanging clothes'), which comprises two morphemes, are expected to constitute a minimal pair as hangar Шаблон:IPA versus hanger Шаблон:IPA; in actuality, their pronunciations are not consistently distinguished in this manner, as hangar is frequently pronounced Шаблон:IPA.

Additionally, there are exceptions in the form of comparative and superlative forms of adjectives, where Rule 2 must be prevented from applying. The ending -ish is another possible exception.

Word Underlying phonological form Phonetic form
long Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
longer Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
longest Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
longish Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

As a result, there is, in theory, a minimal pair consisting of longer (Шаблон:IPA 'more long') and longer (Шаблон:IPA 'person who longs'), though it is doubtful that native speakers make this distinction regularly.Шаблон:Sfnp Names of persons and places, and loanwords, are less predictable. Singapore may be pronounced with or without Шаблон:IPA; bungalow usually has Шаблон:IPA; and Inge may or may not have Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp

Vowel system

It is often stated that English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes and that there are 20 vowel phonemes in Received Pronunciation,Шаблон:Sfnp 14–16 in General American, and 20–21 in Australian English. These numbers, however, reflect just one of many possible phonological analyses. A number of "biphonemic" analyses have proposed that English has a basic set of short (sometimes called "simple" or "checked") vowels, each of which can be shown to be a phoneme and can be combined with another phoneme to form long vowels and diphthongs. One of these biphonemic analyses asserts that diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to a consonant. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either Шаблон:IPA (for which the authors use the symbol Шаблон:Angbr), Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (plus Шаблон:IPA for rhotic accents), each thus comprising two phonemes.Шаблон:Sfnp Using this system, the word bite would be transcribed Шаблон:IPA, bout as Шаблон:IPA, bar as Шаблон:IPA and bra as Шаблон:IPA. One attraction that the authors claim for this analysis is that it regularizes the distribution of the consonants Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:IPA (as well as Шаблон:IPA in non-rhotic accents), which would otherwise not be found in syllable-final position. Шаблон:Harvcoltxt suggest nine simple vowel phonemes to allow them to represent all the accents of American and British English they surveyed, symbolized Шаблон:IPA (front vowels); Шаблон:IPA (central vowels); and Шаблон:IPA (back vowels).

The analysis from Шаблон:Harvcoltxt came out of a desire to build an "overall system" to accommodate all English dialects, with dialectal distinctions arising from differences in the ordering of phonological rules,Шаблон:SfnpШаблон:Sfnp as well as in the presence or absence of such rules.Шаблон:Sfnp Another category of biphonemic analyses of English treats long vowels and diphthongs as conjunctions of two vowels. Such analyses, as found in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt or Шаблон:Harvcoltxt for example, are less concerned with dialectal variation. In Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, for example, there are seven basic vowels and these may be doubled (geminated) to represent long vowels, as shown in the table below:

Short vowel Long vowel
i (bit) ii (beet)
e (bet)
a (cat) aa (cart)
o (cot) oo (caught)
u (pull) uu (pool)
ə (collect) əə (curl)

Some of the short vowels may also be combined with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA bay, Шаблон:IPA buy, Шаблон:IPA boy), with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA beau) or with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA peer, Шаблон:IPA pair, Шаблон:IPA poor). The vowel inventory of English RP in MacCarthy's system therefore totals only seven phonemes. Analyses such as these could also posit six vowel phonemes, if the vowel of the final syllable in comma is considered to be an unstressed allophone of that of strut. These seven vowels might be symbolized Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Six or seven vowels is a figure that would put English much closer to the average number of vowel phonemes in other languages.Шаблон:Sfn

A radically different approach to the English vowel system was proposed by Chomsky and Halle. Their Sound Pattern of English Шаблон:Harvcol proposed that English has lax and tense vowel phonemes, which are operated on by a complex set of phonological rules to transform underlying phonological forms into surface phonetic representations. This generative analysis is not easily comparable with conventional analyses, but the total number of vowel phonemes proposed falls well short of the figure of 20 often claimed as the number of English vowel phonemes.

See also

Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist-ua

References

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Sources

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Further reading

Шаблон:Refbegin

  • Шаблон:Cite journal
  • Шаблон:Cite journal
  • Campbell, F., Gick, B., Wilson, I., Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2010), "Spatial and Temporal Properties of Gestures in North American English /r/". Child's Language and Speech, 53 (1): 49–69
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Dalcher Villafaña, C., Knight, R.A., Jones, M.J., (2008), "Cue Switching in the Perception of Approximants: Evidence from Two English Dialects". University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 14 (2): 63–64
  • Espy-Wilson, C. (2004), "Articulatory Strategies, speech Acoustics and Variability". From Sound to Sense June 11 – June 13 at MIT: 62–63
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Hagiwara, R., Fosnot, S. M., & Alessi, D. M. (2002). "Acoustic phonetics in a clinical setting: A case study of /r/-distortion therapy with surgical intervention". Clinical linguistics & phonetics, 16 (6): 425–441.
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Hoff, Erika, (2009), Language Development. Scarborough, Ontario. Cengage Learning, 2005.
  • Howard, S. (2007), "The interplay between articulation and prosody in children with impaired speech: Observations from electropalatographic and perceptual analysis". International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 9 (1): 20–35.
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Locke, John L., (1983), Phonological Acquisition and Change. New York, United States. Academic Press, 1983. Print.
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Шаблон:Citation
  • Sharf, D.J., Benson, P.J. (1982), "Identification of synthesized/r-w/continua for adult and child speakers". Donald J. Acoustical Society of America, 71 (4):1008–1015.
  • Wise, Claude Merton (1957), Applied Phonetics, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Commons category

Шаблон:Description of English Шаблон:Language phonologies Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Harvnb
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Harvp, cited in Шаблон:Harvp.
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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