Английская Википедия:Epenthesis

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:More footnotes Шаблон:Sound change Шаблон:IPA notice

In phonology, epenthesis (Шаблон:IPAc-en; Greek Шаблон:Wikt-lang) means the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially in the beginning syllable (prothesis) or in the ending syllable (paragoge) or in-between two syllabic sounds in a word. The word epenthesis comes from Шаблон:Wikt-lang "in addition to" and en- "in" and thesis "putting". Epenthesis may be divided into two types: excrescence for the addition of a consonant, and for the addition of a vowel, svarabhakti (in Sanskrit) or alternatively anaptyxis (Шаблон:IPAc-en). The opposite process, where one or more sounds are removed, is referred to as elision.

Uses

Epenthesis arises for a variety of reasons. The phonotactics of a given language may discourage vowels in hiatus or consonant clusters, and a consonant or vowel may be added to make pronunciation easier. Epenthesis may be represented in writing, or it may be a feature only of the spoken language.

Separating vowels

A consonant may be added to separate vowels in hiatus, as is the case with linking and intrusive R in English.

  • drawing → draw-r-ing

Bridging consonant clusters

A consonant may be placed between consonants in a consonant cluster where the place of articulation is different (such as if one consonant is labial and the other is alveolar).

  • something → somepthing
  • hamster → hampster
  • *a-mrotos → ambrotos (see below)

Breaking consonant clusters

A vowel may be placed between consonants to separate them.

Other contexts

While epenthesis most often occurs between two vowels or two consonants, it can also occur between a vowel and a consonant or at the ends of words. For example, the Japanese prefix Шаблон:Nihongo transforms regularly to Шаблон:Nihongo when it is followed by a consonant, as in Шаблон:Nihongo. The English suffix Шаблон:Wikt-lang, often found in the form Шаблон:Wikt-lang, as in Шаблон:Wikt-lang (from Шаблон:Wikt-lang + Шаблон:Wikt-lang), is an example of terminal excrescence.

Excrescence

Шаблон:See alsoExcrescence is the epenthesis of a consonant.

Historical sound change

Synchronic rule

In French, Шаблон:IPA is inserted in inverted interrogative phrases between a verb ending in a vowel and a pronoun beginning with a vowel: Шаблон:Lang ('he has') > Шаблон:Lang ('has he?'). There is no epenthesis from a historical perspective since the Шаблон:Lang is derived from Latin Шаблон:Lang ('he has'), and so the Шаблон:Lang is the original third-person verb inflection. It is incorrect to call it epenthesis unless viewed synchronically since the modern basic form of the verb is Шаблон:Lang and so the psycholinguistic process is therefore the addition of Шаблон:Lang to the base form.

A similar example is the English indefinite article a, which becomes an before a vowel. It originated from Old English Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("one, a, an"), which retained an n in all positions, so a diachronic analysis would see the original n disappearing except if a following vowel required its retention: an > a. However, a synchronic analysis, in keeping with the perception of most native speakers, would (though incorrectly) see it as epenthesis: a > an.

In Dutch, whenever the suffix Шаблон:Wikt-lang (which has several meanings) is attached to a word already ending in -r, an additional Шаблон:Lang is inserted in between. For example, the comparative form of the adjective Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("sweet") is Шаблон:Wikt-lang, but the comparative of Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("sour") is Шаблон:Wikt-lang and not the expected **Шаблон:Lang. Similarly, the agent noun of Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("to sell") is Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("salesperson"), but the agent noun of Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("to perform") is Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("performer").

Variable rule

Шаблон:Further In English, a stop consonant is often added as a transitional sound between the parts of a nasal + fricative sequence:

Poetic device

The three short syllables in Шаблон:Lang do not fit into dactylic hexameter because of the dactyl's limit of two short syllables so the first syllable is lengthened by adding another l. However, the pronunciation was often not written with double ll, and may have been the normal way of pronouncing a word starting in rel- rather than a poetic modification.

In Japanese

A limited number of words in Japanese use epenthetic consonants to separate vowels. An example is the word Шаблон:Nihongo, a compound of haru and ame in which an Шаблон:IPA is added to separate the final Шаблон:IPA of haru and the initial Шаблон:IPA of ame. That is a synchronic analysis. As for a diachronic (historical) analysis, since epenthetic consonants are not used regularly in modern Japanese, the epenthetic Шаблон:IPA could be from Old Japanese. It is also possible that Old Japanese /ame2/ was once pronounced */same2/; the Шаблон:IPA would then be not epenthetic but simply an archaic pronunciation. Another example is Шаблон:Nihongo.

A complex example of epenthesis is Шаблон:Nihongo, from Шаблон:Nihongo + Шаблон:Nihongo. It exhibits epenthesis on both morphemes: Шаблон:Nihongo → Шаблон:Nihongo is common (occurring before a consonant), and Шаблон:Nihongo → Шаблон:Nihongo occurs only in the example; it can be analyzed as Шаблон:Transl → Шаблон:Transl (intervocalic) → Шаблон:Transl; akin to Шаблон:Nihongo from Шаблон:Nihongo + Шаблон:Nihongo.

One hypothesis argues that Japanese Шаблон:IPA developed "as a default, epenthetic consonant in the intervocalic position".Шаблон:Sfn

Шаблон:Anchor

Anaptyxis

Epenthesis of a vowel is known as anaptyxis (Шаблон:IPAc-en, from Greek Шаблон:Lang "unfolding"). Some accounts distinguish between "intrusive" optional vowels, vowel-like releases of consonants as phonetic detail, and true epenthetic vowels that are required by the phonotactics of the language and are acoustically identical with phonemic vowels.

Historical sound change

End of word

Many languages insert a so-called prop vowel at the end of a word, often as a result of the common sound change where vowels at the end of a word are deleted. For example, in the Gallo-Romance languages, a prop schwa /ə/ was added when final non-open vowels were dropped leaving /Cr/ clusters at the end, e.g. Latin nigrum '(shiny) black' > *Шаблон:IPA > Old French negre Шаблон:IPA 'black' (thus avoiding the impermissible Шаблон:IPA, cf. carrum > char 'cart').

Middle of word

Similarly as above, a vowel may be inserted in the middle of a word to resolve an impermissible word-final consonant cluster. An example of this can be found in Lebanese Arabic, where /ˈʔaləb/ 'heart' corresponds to Modern Standard Arabic Шаблон:Lang /qalb/ and Egyptian Arabic /ʔælb/. In the development of Old English, Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Wikt-lang 'field, acre' would have ended up with an impermissible Шаблон:IPA final cluster (*æcr), so it was resolved by inserting an /e/ before the rhotic consonant: Шаблон:Wikt-lang (cf. the use of a syllabic consonant in Gothic Шаблон:Wikt-lang).

Vowel insertion in the middle of a word can be observed in the history of the Slavic languages, which had a preference for open syllables in medieval times. An example of this is the Proto-Slavic form Шаблон:Lang 'town', in which the East Slavic languages inserted an epenthetic copy vowel to open the closed syllable, resulting in Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Transl), which became Шаблон:Wikt-lang (Шаблон:Transl) in modern Russian and Ukrainian. Other Slavic languages used metathesis for the vowel and the syllable-final consonant, producing *grodŭ in this case, as seen in Polish Шаблон:Lang, Old Church Slavonic градъ gradŭ, Serbo-Croatian Шаблон:Lang and Czech Шаблон:Lang.

Another environment can be observed in the history of Modern Persian, in which former word-initial consonant clusters, which were still extant in Middle Persian, are regularly broken up: Middle Persian brādar 'brother' > modern Iranian Persian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA, Middle Persian stūn 'column' > Early New Persian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl > modern Iranian Persian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Transl Шаблон:IPA.

In Spanish, as a phonetic detail, it is usual to find a schwa vowel in sequences of a consonant followed by a flap. For instance, Шаблон:Lang 'vinegar' may be Шаблон:IPA but also Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:Citation needed

Many Indo-Aryan languages carry an inherent vowel after each consonant. For example, in Assamese, the inherent vowel is "o" (অ), while in Hindi and Marathi, it is "a" (अ). Sanskrit words like "maaŋsa" (meat, মাংস), "ratna" (jewel, ৰত্ন), "yatna" (effort, যত্ন), "padma" (lotus, পদ্ম), "harsha" (joy, হৰ্ষ), "dvaara" ("door", দ্বাৰ) etc. become "moŋoh" (মাংস > মঙহ), "roton" (ৰত্ন > ৰতন), "zoton" (যত্ন > যতন), "podum" (পদ্ম > পদুম), "horix" (হৰ্ষ > হৰিষ), "duwar" (দ্বাৰ > দুৱাৰ) etc. in Assamese.[1] Other, non-Tatsama words also undergo anaptyxis, for example, the English word "glass" becomes "gilas" (গিলাছ).

Beginning of word

In the Western Romance languages, a prothetic vowel was inserted at the beginning of any word that began with Шаблон:IPA and another consonant, e.g. Latin Шаблон:Lang 'two-edged sword, typically used by cavalry' becomes the normal word for 'sword' in Romance languages with an inserted Шаблон:IPA: Spanish/Portuguese Шаблон:Lang, Catalan Шаблон:Lang, Old French Шаблон:Lang > modern Шаблон:Lang (see also Шаблон:Wikt-lang 'swordfish').

French in fact presents three layers in the vocabulary in which initial vowel epenthesis is or is not applied, depending on the time a word came into the language:

Additionally, at some point in the Proto-Armenian language and Classical Armenian, there was the prothetic vowel ե placed at the beginning of the word before the sound ր, leading to words like երախ ("animal mouth", erax) from Iranian rax ("animal mouth"), or երազ ("dream", eraz) from Iranian raz ("mystery").

Grammatical rule

Epenthesis often breaks up a consonant cluster or vowel sequence that is not permitted by the phonotactics of a language. Regular or semi-regular epenthesis commonly occurs in languages with affixes. For example, a reduced vowel Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA (here abbreviated as Шаблон:IPA) is inserted before the English plural suffix Шаблон:IPA and the past tense suffix Шаблон:IPA when the root ends in a similar consonant: glass → glasses Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA; bat → batted Шаблон:IPA. However, this is a synchronic analysis as the vowel was originally present in the suffix but has been lost in most words.

Borrowed words

Vocalic epenthesis typically occurs when words are borrowed from a language that has consonant clusters or syllable codas that are not permitted in the borrowing language.

Languages use various vowels, but schwa is quite common when it is available:

Informal speech

Epenthesis most often occurs within unfamiliar or complex consonant clusters. For example, in English, the name Dwight is commonly pronounced with an epenthetic schwa between the Шаблон:IPA and the Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA), and many speakers insert a schwa between the Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA of realtor. Irish English and Scottish English are some of the dialects that may insert a schwa between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in words like film (Шаблон:IPA) under the influence of Celtic languages, a phenomenon that also occurs in Indian English due to the influence of Indo-Aryan languages like Hindi.

Epenthesis is sometimes used for humorous or childlike effect. For example, the cartoon character Yogi Bear says "pic-a-nic basket" for picnic basket. Another example is found in the chants of England football fans in which England is usually rendered as Шаблон:IPA or the pronunciation of athlete as "ath-e-lete". Some apparent occurrences of epenthesis, however, have a separate cause: the pronunciation of nuclear as Шаблон:Sic (Шаблон:IPA) in some North American dialects arises out of analogy with other -cular words (binocular, particular, etc.) rather than from epenthesis.

In colloquial registers of Brazilian Portuguese, Шаблон:IPA is sometimes inserted between consonant clusters except those with Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang), Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang) or syllable-ending Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:Lang; note syllable-final Шаблон:IPA is pronounced Шаблон:IPA in a number of dialects). Examples would be Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Some dialects also use Шаблон:IPA, which is deemed as stereotypical of people from lower classes, such as those arriving from rural flight in internal migrations to cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Brasília and São Paulo.

In Finnish

In Finnish, there are two epenthetic vowels and two nativization vowels. One epenthetic vowel is the preceding vowel, found in the illative case ending Шаблон:Lang: Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang. The second is Шаблон:IPA, connecting stems that have historically been consonant stems to their case endings: Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang.

In Standard Finnish, consonant clusters may not be broken by epenthetic vowels; foreign words undergo consonant deletion rather than addition of vowels: Шаблон:Lang ("shore") from Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Wikt-lang. However, modern loans may not end in consonants. Even if the word, such as a personal name, is native, a paragogic vowel is needed to connect a consonantal case ending to the word. The vowel is Шаблон:IPA: Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang, or in the case of personal name, Шаблон:Lang + Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang "about Bush" (elative case).

Finnish has moraic consonants: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are of interest. In Standard Finnish, they are slightly intensified before a consonant in a medial cluster: Шаблон:Lang. Some dialects, like Savo and Ostrobothnian, have epenthesis instead and use the preceding vowel in clusters of type Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, in Savo also Шаблон:Lang. (In Finnish linguistics, the phenomenon is often referred to as Шаблон:Lang; the same word can also mean schwa, but it is not a phoneme in Finnish so there is usually no danger of confusion.)

For example, Шаблон:Lang "Ostrobothnia" → Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang, and Savo Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang. Ambiguities may result: Шаблон:Lang "strait" vs. Шаблон:Lang. (An exception is that in Pohjanmaa, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang become Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, respectively: Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang. Also, in a small region in Savo, Шаблон:IPA is used instead.)[2]

In constructed languages

Lojban, a constructed language that seeks logically-oriented grammatical and phonological structures, uses a number of consonant clusters in its words. Since it is designed to be as universal as possible, it allows a type of anaptyxis called "buffering" to be used if a speaker finds a cluster difficult or impossible to pronounce. A vowel sound that is nonexistent in Lojban (usually /ɪ/ as in "hit") is added between two consonants to make the word easier to pronounce. Despite altering the phonetics of a word, the use of buffering is completely ignored by grammar. Also, the vowel sound used must not be confused with any existing Lojban vowel.

An example of buffering in Lojban is that if a speaker finds the cluster Шаблон:IPA in the word Шаблон:Wikt-lang ("cat") (pronounced Шаблон:IPA) hard or impossible to pronounce, the vowel Шаблон:IPA can be pronounced between the two consonants, resulting in the form Шаблон:IPA. Nothing changes grammatically, including the word's spelling and the syllabication.

In sign language

A type of epenthesis in sign language is known as "movement epenthesis" and occurs, most commonly, during the boundary between signs while the hands move from the posture required by the first sign to that required by the next.[3]

Related phenomena

  • Infixation: the insertion of a morpheme within a word
  • Metathesis: the reordering of sounds within a word
  • Paragoge: the addition of a sound to the end of a word
  • Prothesis: the addition of a sound to the beginning of a word
  • Tmesis: the inclusion of a whole word within another one

See also

Шаблон:Div col

Шаблон:Div col end

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

General and cited sources

External links

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  2. ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег <ref>; для сносок Savolainen не указан текст
  3. ↑ Шаблон:Citation
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