Английская Википедия:Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Infobox military conflict

The Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict was a violent standoff and a proxy conflict between Eritrea and Ethiopia lasting from 1998 to 2018. It consisted of a series of incidents along the then-disputed border; including the Eritrean–Ethiopian War of 1998–2000 and the subsequent Second Afar insurgency.[1] It included multiple clashes with numerous casualties, including the Battle of Tsorona in 2016. Ethiopia stated in 2018 that it would cede Badme to Eritrea. This led to the Eritrea–Ethiopia summit on 9Шаблон:SpacesJuly 2018, where an agreement was signed which demarcated the border and agreed a resumption of diplomatic relations.[2][3]

Background

Colonisation and border conflict

Шаблон:Further informationIn March 1870, an Italian shipping company became a claimant to the territory at the northern end of Assab Bay, a deserted but spacious bay about half-way between Annesley Bay to the north and Obock to the south.Шаблон:Sfn The area —which had long been dominated by the Ottoman Empire and Egypt was not settled by the Italians until 1880.[4] In 1884, the Hewett Treaty was signed between the British Empire and Ethiopia, reigned by Emperor Yohannes IV (r. 1871–1889). The British Empire promised the highlands of modern Eritrea—and free access to the Massawan coast to Ethiopia in exchange for its help evacuating garrisons from the Sudan, in the then-ongoing Mahdist War.[5] In 1889, the disorder that followed the death of Yohannes IV, Italian General Oreste Baratieri occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of a new colony of "Eritrea", (from the Latin name for the Red Sea), with its capital at Asmara in substitution for Massawa.[6] On 2Шаблон:SpacesMay 1889, the peace and friendship Treaty of Wuchale was signed between Italy and Ethiopia, under which Italian Eritrea was officially recognised by Ethiopia as part of Italy.[7]

However, Article 17 of the treaty was disputed, as the Italian version stated that Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italian authorities (in effect making Ethiopia an Italian protectorate), while the Amharic version gave Ethiopia considerable autonomy, with the option of communicating with third powers through the Italians.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This resulted in the First Italo-Ethiopian War,Шаблон:Sfn which the Ethiopians won, resulting in the Treaty of Addis Ababa in October 1896. Italy paid reparations of ten million Italian lira. Unusually, the Italians retained most, if not all, of the territories beyond the Mareb-Belessa and May/Muni rivers that they had taken, with Emperor Menelik II (Шаблон:Reign) giving away part of Tigray.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On 2Шаблон:SpacesAugust 1928, Ethiopia and Italy signed a new friendship treaty.Шаблон:Sfn

Файл:Pre-Eritrea 1930.png
Map of Eritrea 1930 Pre-Annexation
Файл:Abyssinian-soldiers-1936-142348340618.jpg
Abyssinian soldiers in 1936 during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.

Ethiopia under Italian rule

Шаблон:Main On 22Шаблон:SpacesNovember 1934, Italy claimed that three senior Ethiopian military-political commanders with a force of 1,000 Ethiopian militia arrived near Walwal and formally requested the garrison stationed there, comprising about 60 Somali soldiers, known as dubats, to withdraw.Шаблон:Sfn The Somali NCO leading the garrison refused and alerted Captain Cimmaruta, commander of the garrison of Uarder, Шаблон:Convert away, what had happened.Шаблон:Sfn Between 5 and 7Шаблон:SpacesDecember 1934, for reasons which have never been clearly determined, a skirmish broke out between the garrison and the Ethiopian militia. According to the Italians, the Ethiopians attacked the Somalis with rifle and machine-gun fire.Шаблон:Sfn According to the Ethiopians, the Italians attacked them, supported by two tanks and three aircraft.Шаблон:Sfn According to historian Anthony Mockler 107 Ethiopians were killed.Шаблон:Sfn By 3Шаблон:SpacesOctober 1935, the Italian Army led by General Emilio De Bono launched an invasion of Ethiopia, without a declaration of war. This was the start of a new war called the Second Italo-Ethiopian War.Шаблон:Sfn In May 1936, the Italian Army occupied the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.[8] The occupied country was annexed into the Italian East African colony together with the other Italian east African colonies.[9]

On 10Шаблон:SpacesJune 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France;Шаблон:Sfn in March 1941, Britain began a campaign to capture the Italian-held territory in the region.Шаблон:Sfn By November, the British had occupied the whole Italian East African colony. However thousands of Italian soldiers began conducting a guerrilla war within their former colony[10] which lasted until October 1943.Шаблон:Sfn After the end of WWII, Ethiopia regained her independence, and Eritrea was placed under Britain military administration.Шаблон:Sfn

Prelude

Eritrea as part of Ethiopia

Файл:Ethiopian Civil War.png
The situation during the Ethiopian Civil War.

Шаблон:Main

After the war there was a debate as to what would happen to Eritrea. After the Italian communists' victory in the 1946 Italian general election they supported returning Eritrea to Italy under a trusteeship or as a colony. The Soviet Union similarly wished to make it their trustee; and tried to achieve this by diplomatic means, but they failed.Шаблон:Sfn[11]

Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I (Шаблон:Reign) also claimed Eritrea. In 1952 the United Nations decided that Eritrea would become part of the Ethiopian Empire. Eritrea became a special autonomous region within a federated Ethiopia.[12]

In 1958, a group of Eritreans founded the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). The organisation mainly consisted of Eritrean students, professionals and intellectuals. It engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralising policies of the imperial Ethiopian state.[13] During the following decade the Emperor decided to dissolve the federation between Ethiopia and Eritrea, annexing the special region and bringing it under direct rule.[12]

This resulted in an almost thirty-year long armed struggle known as the Eritrean War of Independence.[14][12] The ELF engaged in armed conflict against the Ethiopian Government from 1Шаблон:SpacesSeptember 1961. In 1970 a group called the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) broke off from the ELF.[15] They were fierce rivals and in February 1972, the First Eritrean Civil War broke out between them.[16] Their rivalry paused in 1974, and calls for the conflict to stop were finally heeded. These calls for peace came from local villagers at a time when the independence movement was close to victory over Ethiopia.[16] On 12Шаблон:SpacesSeptember 1974, a successful coup d'état was carried out against the Emperor led by Lieutenant General Aman Andom. The government was led by members of the pro-Soviet Ethiopian military, which established an almost seven-year long military junta.Шаблон:Citation needed

The ELF-EPLF's peace lasted only six years; in February 1980 the EPLF declared war on the ELF, after which the ELF and the Soviet Union started secret negotiations. The Second Eritrean Civil War lasted until 1981, and the EPLF emerged victorious. The ELF was driven out of Eritrea into Sudan.Шаблон:Citation needed On 27Шаблон:SpacesMay 1991 the new Ethiopian Transitional Government was formed after the fall of the pro-Soviet government. The Ethiopian Transitional Government promised to hold a referendum, within two years in the region. The referendum was held between 23 and 25Шаблон:SpacesApril 1993 with 99.81% voting in favour of independence. On 4Шаблон:SpacesMay 1993 the official independence of Eritrea was established.[17] However, the border between Ethiopia and newly independent Eritrea was not clearly defined. After border skirmishes in late 1997, the two countries attempted to negotiate their boundary.Шаблон:Sfn In October 1997, Ethiopia presented the Eritrean Government a map showing Eritrean-claimed areas as part of Ethiopia.[18]

History

Major combat phase (1998–2000)

Шаблон:Main On 6Шаблон:SpacesMay 1998, border clashes erupted between Ethiopia and Eritrea, killing several Eritrean civilians in the Eritrea town of Badme.[19][20] Ethiopian soldiers attacked Eritrean civilians and Eritreans soldiers retaliated.[19][21]Шаблон:Refn

On 13Шаблон:SpacesMay 1998, the Ethiopian government mobilised their army for a full assault against Eritrea through the town of Badme. Badme has historically been the home of Eritreans and the people who live in Badme are citizens of Eritrea and who pay their taxes to the Eritrean Government. Aside from Badme, Ethiopia had also mobilized her troupes in several places along the Eritrean border with the aim launching a full-scale invasion of Eritrea. Eritrea retaliated by air and ground successfully defending and securing her borders and defeating the Ethiopian military within days. The Eritrean government asked the Ethiopian military to pull back, but the Ethiopians continued their attacks. When Ethiopians could not penetrate Eritrea's borders, Ethiopia sought out assistance from the United States claiming that the Eritreans were the aggressors. The United States didn't physically interfere but supplied Ethiopia weapons and gave them tactical intelligence reports. Ethiopia went to the UN falsely claiming Eritrean aggression on their land. The United Nations investigation showed that Ethiopia had actually illegally aggressed on Eritrean territory. Ethiopia continued her attacks on Eritrea until they were defeated for good by EPLF (Eritrean People Liberation Front) in May 2000. After this defeat, Ethiopia agreed to enter into peace talks with Eritrea still trying to claim Eritrean land as their territory. The Tigryan led Ethiopian government walked out of many peace talks arranged in Algeria. The United Nations, mediators and several other world organizations sided with Eritrea and let Ethiopia know that if they cross the Eritrean borders again, it will be an act of war and that Eritrea has the right to retaliate. Unable to defeat Eritrea in war and through political means the UN or The Claims Commission (established by the Algiers peace agreement), Ethiopia finally ended her military aggression on Eritrea and began a 20 year long cold war with Eritrea.

Post-war conflict on the border (2000–2018)

Файл:UN Soldiers in Eritrea.jpeg
United Nations soldiers, part of the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea, monitoring Eritrea–Ethiopia boundary (2005).

Шаблон:Further information

After a cease-fire was established on 18Шаблон:SpacesJune 2000, both parties agreed to have a Шаблон:Convert demilitarised zone called the Temporary Security Zone (TSZ). It was patrolled by the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) an organisation for the border stabilisation and the prevention of future conflicts between the countries. On 31Шаблон:SpacesJuly 2000, the UNMEE was officially launched and started patrolling the border.[22] On 12Шаблон:SpacesDecember 2000, a peace agreement was signed in Algiers.[23] In August 2002 Eritrea released all the Ethiopian POWs.[24]

Both countries vowed to accept the decision wholeheartedly the day after the ruling was made official.[25] A few months later Ethiopia requested clarifications, then stated it was deeply dissatisfied with the ruling.[26][27][28] In September 2003 Eritrea refused to agree to a new commission,[29] which they would have had to agree to if the old binding agreement was to be set aside,[30] and asked the international community to put pressure on Ethiopia to accept the ruling.[29] In November 2004, Ethiopia accepted the ruling "in principle".[31]

2005–2006

On 10 December 2005, Ethiopia announced it was withdrawing some of its forces from the Eritrean border "in the interests of peace".[32] Then, on 15 December the United Nations began to withdraw peacekeepers from Eritrea in response to a UN resolution passed the previous day.[33]

On 21 December 2005, a commission at the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague ruled that Eritrea broke international law when it attacked Ethiopia in 1998, triggering the broader conflict.[34]

Ethiopia and Eritrea subsequently remobilized troops along the border, leading to fears that the two countries could return to war.[35][36] On 7 December 2005, Eritrea banned UN helicopter flights and ordered Western members (particularly from the United States, Canada, Europe and Russia) of the UN peacekeeping mission on its border with Ethiopia to leave within 10 days, sparking concerns of further conflict with its neighbour.[37] In November 2006 Ethiopia and Eritrea boycotted an Eritrea–Ethiopia Boundary Commission meeting at The Hague which would have demarcated their disputed border using UN maps. Ethiopia was not there because it does not accept the decision and as it will not allow physical demarcation it will not accept map demarcation, and Eritrea was not there because although it backs the commission's proposals, it insists that the border should be physically marked out.[38]

2007–2011

In September 2007, Kjell Bondevik, a United Nations' official, warned that the border conflict could cause a new war.[39] At the November 2007 deadline, some analysts feared the restart of the border war but the date passed without any conflict.[40] There were many reasons why war did not resume. Former U.S. Ambassador David Shinn said both Ethiopia and Eritrea were in a bad position. Many feared the weak Eritrean economy is not improving like those of other African nations, while others say Ethiopia was still bogged down in its intervention in Somalia. David Shinn said Ethiopia has "a very powerful and so far disciplined national army that made pretty short work of the Eritreans in 2000 and the Eritreans have not forgotten that."[40] But he stated Ethiopia is not interested in war because America would condemn Ethiopia if it initiated the war saying "I don't think even the US could sit by and condone an Ethiopian initiated attack on Eritrea."[40]

On 16Шаблон:SpacesJanuary 2008, the Eritrean Government said they gave up all of its claims in Ethiopia.[41] In February, the UNMEE commenced pulling its peacekeepers out of Eritrea due to Eritrean Government restrictions on its fuel supplies.[39] On 30Шаблон:SpacesJuly 2008, the Security Council held a vote which ended the UN mission the next day.[42] In June 2009 a rebel group called Democratic Movement for the Liberation of the Eritrean Kunama (DMLEK) joined the fight against the Eritrean Government with the pro-Ethiopian Red Sea Afar Democratic Organisation (RSADO).[43] On 23Шаблон:SpacesApril 2010, RSADO and the Eritrean National Salvation Front (ENSF) attacked an Eritrean Army's base, they also took it over for 3 hours until 6 a.m. They killed At least 11 Eritreans soldiers and wounded more than 20 others.[44]

2012–2018

The conflict deepened in March 2012, when Ethiopia launched an offensive into Eritrean-held territory. Three Eritrean military camps were attacked, and a number of people were killed or captured.[39][45] Several weeks prior to the offensive, Ethiopia blamed Eritrea for supporting the Ethiopian rebels who had staged the Afar region tourist attack in northern Eithiopia, in which five Western tourists were killed.[39] On 7Шаблон:SpacesSeptember 2013, two Ethiopian-supported Eritrean rebel groups RSADO and the Saho People's Democratic Movement (SPDM) agreed to fight together against the Eritrean Government.[46] In December 2013 the Ethiopian Army, crossed the border to attack some rebel camps in Eritrea.[47]

In June 2016, Eritrea claimed that 200 Ethiopian soldiers were killed and 300 wounded in a battle at Tsorona.[14] On 22Шаблон:SpacesJune 2016 Eritrea warned the UN Human Rights Council that a new war between Ethiopia and the country can restart as Ethiopia was planning for a new attack.[47]

2018 Eritrea–Ethiopia summit

On 2Шаблон:SpacesApril 2018, former Ethiopian Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn resigned due to the unrest and a new Ethiopian Prime Minister, Abiy Ahmed, was appointed.[48] On 5Шаблон:SpacesJune 2018 Ahmed announced that Ethiopia relinquished its claims on the disputed areas and that the conflict with Eritrea was at an end.[49] He arrived on 8Шаблон:SpacesJuly 2018 in Asmara, Eritrea. Where his counterpart, President Isaias Afwerki, greeted him at Asmara International Airport.[50] The next day both leaders signed a five-point Joint Declaration of Peace and Friendship, which declared that "the state of war between Ethiopia and Eritrea has come to an end; a new era of peace and friendship has been opened" and ceded Badme to Eritrea.[51]

Proxy conflict

Шаблон:Further Since the cease-fire was established, both nations have been accused of supporting dissidents and armed opposition groups against each other. John Young, a Canadian analyst and researcher for IRIN, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs news agency, reported that "the military victory of the EPRDF (Ethiopia) that ended the Ethiopia–Eritrea War, and its occupation of a swath of Eritrean territory, brought yet another change to the configuration of armed groups in the borderlands between Ethiopia and Eritrea. Asmara replaced Khartoum as the leading supporter of anti-EPRDF armed groups operating along the frontier".[52] However, Ethiopia is also accused of supporting rebels opposed to the Eritrean government.[53][54]

In 2006 the Ethiopian Government deployed its forces in its neighbour country Somalia, backing the government by fighting against the Islamists. The Ethiopian and Somali governments, accuses Eritrea for backing the Islamists in the region, in reaction of the Somali Government it started backing the Eritrean rebels.[55] In April 2007 Ethiopia accuses also Eritrea for supporting the rebel groups like the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) and the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Unity Front (ARDUF). In April 2011 Ethiopia openly declared its support for Eritrean rebel groups.[39] According to the Global Security in 2014 the rebel group Tigray People's Democratic Movement (TPDM) which is active in the Tigray Region was the most important rebel group in Eritrea fighting against the Ethiopian Government, Eritrea also financed and train the group.[56]

In January 2015, the pro-Eritrean rebel groups, the Ginbot 7 and the Ethiopian People's Patriotic Front (EPPF) merged to fight against the Ethiopian Government, and called itself the Arbegnoch – Ginbot 7 for Unity and Democracy Movement (AGUDM).[57] On 25Шаблон:SpacesJuly 2015, Ginbot 7 decided to go in an armed resistance and goes into exile in Eritrea.[58] On 10Шаблон:SpacesOctober 2016, the Ethiopian Government claimed that Eritrea (was also helping Oromo Liberation Front [OLF])[59] and Egypt were behind the Oromo protests in Ethiopia.[60]

Impact and aftermath

Шаблон:Further information Soon after the peace summit, many Ethiopian rebels returned to Ethiopia, including TPDM, OLF and Ginbot 7. On 10 October, the last 2,000 of TPDM members returned to Ethiopia.[61] The UN lifted its sanctions onШаблон:Spaces14 November 2018 after nine years against Eritrea. Eritrea made also a joint agreement with Somalia and Ethiopia to co-operate with each other.[62] Later on 13 December 2018 President Afwerki went to Somalia for the first time in two decades.[63]

During only the war, between 70,000 and 300,000 people were killed and 650,000 displaced,[14][64][65] of whom 19,000–150,000 were Eritrean soldiers[66] and 80,000–123,000 were Ethiopian soldiers.Шаблон:Sfn The casualties after the war there were between 523 and 530 dead in the Second Afar insurgency alone. On the Eritrean side the casualties of the conflict were between 427 and 434 Eritreans killed, 30 pro-Eritrean rebels killed, 88 Eritrean soldiers wounded and 2 Eritreans captured. The Ethiopian side were 49 Ethiopian soldiers (claimed by rebels), and five civilians were killed, also, 23 civilians were kidnapped and three others were wounded.[67][68][69][44][70][71][72][73][74][75][76] On the both countries border, the casualties of both countries were according to Eritrea at least 18 Eritreans and over 200 Ethiopians.[77]

Timeline

Шаблон:See also

Файл:Eritrea Ethiopia Map.png
Ethiopia and Eritrea, highlighted.

On 19 June 2008 the BBC published a time line (which they update periodically) of the conflict and reported that the "Border dispute rumbles on":Шаблон:BlockquoteIn August 2009, Eritrea and Ethiopia were ordered to pay each other compensation for the war.[78]

In March 2011, Ethiopia accused Eritrea of sending bombers across the border. In April, Ethiopia acknowledged that it was supporting rebel groups inside Eritrea.[78] In July, a United Nations Monitoring Group accused Eritrea of being behind a plot to attack an African Union summit in Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, in January 2011. Eritrea stated the accusation was a total fabrication.[79]

In January 2012, five European tourists were killed and another two were kidnapped close to the border with Eritrea in the remote Afar Region in Ethiopia. In early March the kidnappers announced that they had released the two kidnapped Germans. On 15 March, Ethiopian ground forces attacked Eritrean military posts that they stated were bases in which Ethiopian rebels, including those involved in the January kidnappings, were trained by the Eritreans.[78][80]

See also

References

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Шаблон:Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict (1998–2018) Шаблон:Eritrea topics Шаблон:Ethiopia topics Шаблон:Post-Cold War African conflicts

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