Английская Википедия:Esperanto phonology
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Esperanto sidebar Шаблон:IPA notice Esperanto is a constructed international auxiliary language designed to have a simple phonology. The creator of Esperanto, L. L. Zamenhof, described Esperanto pronunciation by comparing the sounds of Esperanto with the sounds of several major European languages.
With over a century of use, Esperanto has developed a phonological norm, including accepted details of phonetics,[1] phonotactics,[2] and intonation,[3] so that it is now possible to speak of proper Esperanto pronunciation and of properly formed words independently of the languages originally used to describe it. This norm accepts only minor allophonic variation.[4]
Inventory
The original Esperanto lexicon contains:
- 23 consonants (including ĥ Шаблон:IPAslink, which has become rare, and 4 affricates)
- 11 vowels (5 simple vowels and 6 diphthongs).
A few additional sounds found in loan words, such as Шаблон:IPAslink, are not stable.
Consonants
The uncommon affricate Шаблон:IPAslink does not have a distinct letter in the orthography, but is written with the digraph Шаблон:Angbr, as in Шаблон:Lang ('husband'). Not everyone agrees with Kalocsay & Waringhien that Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are a near rhyme, differing only in voicing, or on the status of Шаблон:IPA as a phoneme; Wennergren considers it to be a simple sequence of /d/ + /z/.[4] The phoneme Шаблон:IPA has been largely replaced with /k/ and is now found mostly in loanwords and a very few established words such as Шаблон:Lang ('a Czech'; cf. Шаблон:Lang 'a check'). The letter ŭ is sometimes used as a consonant in onomatopoeia and unassimilated foreign names, in addition to the second element in diphthongs, which some argue is consonantal /w/ rather than vocalic Шаблон:IPA (see below).
Vowels
Esperanto has between 5 and 11 vowels, depending on analysis: 5 monophthongs and up to 6 diphthongs.
There are six historically stable diphthongs: Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA. However, some authors such as John C. Wells regard them as vowel–consonant sequences – Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA – while Wennergren regards Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA as vowel–consonant sequences and only Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA as diphthongs, there otherwise being no Шаблон:IPA in Esperanto.[5]
Origins
The Esperanto sound inventory and phonotactics are very close to those of Yiddish, Belarusian and Polish, which were personally important to Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto. The primary difference is the absence of palatalization, although this was present in Proto-Esperanto (Шаблон:Lang, now Шаблон:Lang 'nations'; Шаблон:Lang, now Шаблон:Lang 'family') and arguably survives marginally in the affectionate suffixes Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, and in the interjection Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:NoteTag Apart from this, the consonant inventory is identical to that of Eastern Yiddish. Minor differences from Belarusian are that g is pronounced as a stop, Шаблон:IPAblink, rather than as a fricative, Шаблон:IPAblink (in Belarusian, the stop pronunciation is found in recent loan words), and that Esperanto distinguishes Шаблон:IPAslink and Шаблон:IPAslink, a distinction that Yiddish makes but that Belarusian (and Polish) do not. As in Belarusian, Esperanto Шаблон:IPAslink is found in syllable onsets and Шаблон:IPA in syllable codas; however, unlike Belarusian, Шаблон:IPAslink does not become Шаблон:IPA if forced into coda position through compounding. According to Kalocsay & Waringhien, if Esperanto Шаблон:IPA does appear before a voiceless consonant, it will devoice to Шаблон:IPA, as in Yiddish.[6] However, Zamenhof avoided such situations by adding an epenthetic vowel: Шаблон:Lang ('washbasin'), not Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang. The Esperanto vowel inventory is essentially that of Belarusian.Шаблон:NoteTag Zamenhof's Litvish dialect of Yiddish (that of Białystok) has an additional schwa and diphthong oŭ but no uj.
Orthography and pronunciation
The Esperanto alphabet is nearly phonemic. The letters, along with the IPA and nearest English equivalent of their principal allophones, are:[7]
| Consonants | Simple vowels | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Letter | English | IPA | LetterШаблон:Spaces | EnglishШаблон:Spaces | IPA | |
| b | b | Шаблон:IPAblink | a | spa | Шаблон:IPAblink | |
| c | bits | Шаблон:IPAblink | e | bet | Шаблон:IPAblink | |
| ĉ | choose | Шаблон:IPAblink | i | machine | Шаблон:IPAblink | |
| d | d | Шаблон:IPAblink | o | fork | Шаблон:IPAblink | |
| f | f | Шаблон:IPAblink | u | rude | Шаблон:IPAblink | |
| g | go | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| ĝ | gem | Шаблон:IPAblink | Шаблон:Center | |||
| h | h | Шаблон:IPAblink | aj | sky | Шаблон:IPA | |
| ĥ | loch | Шаблон:IPAblink | aŭ | now | Шаблон:IPA | |
| j | young | Шаблон:IPAblink | ej | grey | Шаблон:IPA | |
| ĵ | pleasure | Шаблон:IPAblink | eŭ | (eh-oo) | Шаблон:IPA | |
| k | k | Шаблон:IPAblink | oj | boy | Шаблон:IPA | |
| l | l | Шаблон:IPAblink | uj | gooey | Шаблон:IPA | |
| m | m | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| n | n | Шаблон:IPAblink | Шаблон:See also Ŭ may be a consonant:
| |||
| p | p | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| r | rШаблон:Spaces(rhotic sound, usually rolled r) | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| s | s | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| ŝ | ship | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| t | t | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| v | v | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
| z | z | Шаблон:IPAblink | ||||
Minimal pairs
Esperanto has many minimal pairs between the voiced and voiceless plosives, b d g and p t k; for example, Шаблон:Lang "pay" vs. Шаблон:Lang "pack", Шаблон:Lang "bar" vs. Шаблон:Lang "pair", Шаблон:Lang "briefcase" vs. Шаблон:Lang "group of ten".
On the other hand, the distinctions between several Esperanto consonants carry very light functional loads, though they are not in complementary distribution and therefore not allophones. The practical effect of this is that people who do not control these distinctions are still able to communicate without difficulty. These minor distinctions are ĵ Шаблон:IPAslink vs. ĝ Шаблон:IPAslink, contrasted in Шаблон:Lang ('concrete thing') vs. Шаблон:Lang ('age'); k Шаблон:IPAslink vs. ĥ Шаблон:IPAslink vs. h Шаблон:IPAslink, contrasted in Шаблон:Lang ('heart') vs. Шаблон:Lang ('chorus') vs. Шаблон:Lang ('hour'), and in the prefix Шаблон:Lang (inchoative) vs. Шаблон:Lang ('echo'); dz Шаблон:IPAslink vs. z Шаблон:IPAslink, not contrasted in basic vocabulary; and c Шаблон:IPAslink vs. ĉ Шаблон:IPAslink, found in a few minimal pairs such as Шаблон:Lang ('tzar'), Шаблон:Lang ('because'); Шаблон:Lang ('thou'), Шаблон:Lang (proximate particle used with deictics); Шаблон:Lang ('goal'), Шаблон:Lang ('cell'); Шаблон:Lang ('-ness'), Шаблон:Lang ('even'); etc.
Belarusian seems to have provided the model for Esperanto's diphthongs, as well as the complementary distribution of v (restricted to the onset of a syllable), and ŭ (occurring only as a vocalic offglide), although this was modified slightly, with Belarusian oŭ corresponding to Esperanto ov (as in Шаблон:Lang), and ŭ being restricted to the sequences Шаблон:Lang in Esperanto. Although v and ŭ may both occur between vowels, as in Шаблон:Lang ('ninth') and Шаблон:Lang ('of naves'), the diphthongal distinction holds: Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA. (However, Zamenhof did allow initial ŭ in onomatopoeic words such as Шаблон:Lang 'wah!'.) The semivowel j likewise does not occur after the vowel i, but is also restricted from occurring before i in the same morpheme, whereas the Belarusian letter i represents Шаблон:IPA. Later exceptions to these patterns, such as Шаблон:Lang ('poop deck'), Шаблон:Lang ('watt'), East Asian proper names beginning with Шаблон:Angbr, and Шаблон:Lang ('Yiddish'), are marginal.Шаблон:NoteTag
The distinction between e and ej carries a light functional load, in the core vocabulary perhaps only distinctive before alveolar sonorants, such as Шаблон:Lang ('peg'), Шаблон:Lang ('cellar'); Шаблон:Lang ('mile'), Шаблон:Lang ('badger'); Шаблон:Lang ('Rhine'), Шаблон:Lang ('kidney'). The recent borrowing Шаблон:Lang ('homosexual') could contrast with the ambisexual prefix Шаблон:Lang if used in compounds with a following consonant, and also creating possible confusion between Шаблон:Lang ('homosexual couple') and Шаблон:Lang ('heterosexual couple'), which are both pronounceable as Шаблон:IPA. Шаблон:Lang is also uncommon, and very seldom contrastive: Шаблон:Lang ('a euro') vs. Шаблон:Lang ('a bit').
Stress and prosody
Within a word, stress is on the syllable with the second-to-last vowel, such as the li in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('family'). An exception is when the final -o of a noun is elided, usually for poetic reasons, because this does not affect the placement of the stress: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
On the rare occasions that stress needed to be specified, as in explanatory material or with proper names, Zamenhof used an acute accent.Шаблон:Citation needed The most common such proper name is Zamenhof's own: Шаблон:Lang. If the stress falls on the last syllable, it is common for an apostrophe to be used, as in poetic elision: Шаблон:Lang.
There is no set rule for which other syllables might receive stress in a polysyllabic word, or which monosyllabic words are stressed in a clause. Morphology, semantic load, and rhythm all play a role. By default, Esperanto is trochaic; stress tends to hit alternate syllables: Шаблон:Lang. However, derivation tends to leave such "secondary" stress unchanged, at least for many speakers: Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (or for some just Шаблон:Lang) Similarly, compound words generally retain their original stress. They never stress an epenthetic vowel: thus Шаблон:Lang, not Шаблон:Lang.
Within a clause, rhythm also plays a role. However, referential words (lexical words and pronouns) attract stress, whereas "connecting" words such as prepositions tend not to: Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang ('give to me'), not Шаблон:Lang. In Шаблон:Lang ('Do you see the dog that's running past the house?'), the function words do not take stress, not even two-syllable Шаблон:Lang ('which') or Шаблон:Lang ('beyond'). The verb Шаблон:Lang ('to be') behaves similarly, as can be seen by the occasional elision of the e in poetry or rapid speech: Шаблон:Lang ('I'm not here!') Phonological words do not necessarily match orthographic words. Pronouns, prepositions, the article, and other monosyllabic function words are generally pronounced as a unit with the following word: Шаблон:Lang ('I have'), Шаблон:Lang ('the boy'), Шаблон:Lang ('of the word'), Шаблон:Lang ('at table'). Exceptions include Шаблон:Lang 'and', which may be pronounced more distinctly when it has a larger scope than the following word or phrase.[8]
Within poetry, of course, the meter determines stress: Шаблон:Lang ('Oh my heart, do not beat uneasily').
Emphasis and contrast may override normal stress. Pronouns frequently take stress because of this. In a simple question like Шаблон:Lang ('Did you see?'), the pronoun hardly needs to be said and is unstressed; compare Шаблон:Lang and ('No, give meШаблон:'). Within a word, a prefix that wasn't heard correctly may be stressed upon repetition: Шаблон:Lang ('No, not over there! Go left, I said!'). Because stress doesn't distinguish words in Esperanto, shifting it to an unexpected syllable calls attention to that syllable, but doesn't cause confusion as it might in English.
As in many languages, initialisms behave unusually. When grammatical, they may be unstressed: k.t.p. Шаблон:IPA ('et cetera'); when used as proper names, they tend to be idiosyncratic: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA but rarely Шаблон:IPA. This seems to be a way of indicating that the term is not a normal word. However, full acronyms tend to have regular stress: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
Lexical tone is not phonemic. Nor is clausal intonation, as question particles and changes in word order serve many of the functions that intonation performs in English.
Phonotactics
A syllable in Esperanto is generally of the form (s/ŝ)(C)(C)V(C)(C). That is, it may have an onset, of up to three consonants; must have a nucleus of a single vowel or diphthong (except in onomatopoeic words such as zzz!), and may have a coda of zero to one (occasionally two) consonants.
Any consonant may occur initially, with the exception of j before i (though there is now one word that violates this restriction, Шаблон:Lang ('Yiddish') which contrasts with Шаблон:Lang "of an offspring").
Any consonant except h may close a syllable, though coda ĝ and ĵ are rare in monomorphemes (they contrast in Шаблон:Lang 'age' vs. Шаблон:Lang 'thing'). Within a morpheme, there may be a maximum of four sequential consonants, as for example in Шаблон:Lang ('teaches'), Шаблон:Lang ('to the right'). Long clusters generally include a sibilant such as s or one of the liquids l or r.
Geminate consonants generally only occur in polymorphemic words, such as Шаблон:Lang ('short'), Шаблон:Lang ('to flop down'), Шаблон:Lang ('to mis-write'); in ethnonyms such as Шаблон:Lang ('a Finn'), Шаблон:Lang ('a Gaul') (now more commonly Шаблон:Lang); in proper names such as Шаблон:Lang ('Schiller'), Шаблон:Lang ('Buddha', now more commonly Шаблон:Lang); and in a handful of unstable borrowings such as Шаблон:Lang ('a sports match'). In compounds of lexical words, Zamenhof separated identical consonants with an epenthetic vowel, as in Шаблон:Lang ('the evening of life'), never Шаблон:Lang.
Word-final consonants occur, though final voiced obstruents are generally rejected. For example, Latin Шаблон:Lang ('to') became Esperanto Шаблон:Lang, and Polish Шаблон:Lang ('than') morphed into Esperanto Шаблон:Lang ('than'). Sonorants and voiceless obstruents, on the other hand, are found in many of the numerals: Шаблон:Lang ('hundred'), Шаблон:Lang ('eight'), Шаблон:Lang ('seven'), Шаблон:Lang ('six'), Шаблон:Lang ('five'), Шаблон:Lang ('four'); also Шаблон:Lang ('during'), Шаблон:Lang ('even'). Even the poetic elision of final -o is rarely seen if it would leave a final voiced obstruent. A very few words with final voiced obstruents do occur, such as Шаблон:Lang ('but') and Шаблон:Lang ('next to'), but in such cases there is no minimal-pair contrast with a voiceless counterpart (that is, there is no Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang to cause confusion). This is because many people, including the Slavs and Germans, do not contrast voicing in final obstruents. For similar reasons, sequences of obstruents with mixed voicing are not found in Zamenhofian compounds, apart from numerals and grammatical forms, thus Шаблон:Lang 'for a long time', not Шаблон:Lang. (Note that Шаблон:IPA is an exception to this rule, like in the Slavic languages. It is effectively ambiguous between fricative and approximant. The other exception is Шаблон:IPA, which is commonly treated as Шаблон:IPA.)
Syllabic consonants occur only as interjections and onomatopoeia: Шаблон:Lang.
All triconsonantal onsets begin with a sibilant, s or ŝ. Disregarding proper names, such as Шаблон:Lang, the following initial consonant clusters occur:
- Stop + liquid – bl, br; pl, pr; dr; tr; gl, gr; kl, kr
- Voiceless fricative + liquid – fl, fr; sl; ŝl, ŝr
- Voiceless sibilant + voiceless stop (+ liquid) – sc Шаблон:IPA, sp, spl, spr; st, str; sk, skl, skr; ŝp, ŝpr; ŝt, ŝtr
- Obstruent + nasal – gn, kn, sm, sn, ŝm, ŝn
- Obstruent + Шаблон:IPA – gv, kv, sv, ŝv
And more marginally,
- Consonant + Шаблон:IPA – (tj), ĉj, fj, vj, nj
Although it does not occur initially, the sequence Шаблон:Angbr is pronounced as an affricate, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('a husband') with an open first syllable [e], not as Шаблон:IPA.
In addition, initial Шаблон:Angbr occurs in German-derived Шаблон:Lang ('penny'), Шаблон:Angbr in Sanskrit Шаблон:Lang ('kshatriya'), and several additional uncommon initial clusters occur in technical words of Greek origin, such as mn-, pn-, ks-, ps-, sf-, ft-, kt-, pt-, bd-, such as Шаблон:Lang ('a sphincter' which also has the coda Шаблон:Angbr). Quite a few more clusters turn up in sufficiently obscure words, such as Шаблон:Angbr in Шаблон:Lang "Thlaspi" (a genus of herb), and Aztec deities such as Шаблон:Lang ('Tlaloc'). (The Шаблон:IPA phonemes are presumably devoiced in these words.)
As this might suggest, greater phonotactic diversity and complexity is tolerated in learnèd than in quotidian words, almost as if "difficult" phonotactics were an iconic indication of "difficult" vocabulary. Diconsonantal codas, for example, generally only occur in technical terms, proper names, and in geographical and ethnic terms: Шаблон:Lang ('a conjunction'), Шаблон:Lang ('Arctic'), Шаблон:Lang ('isthmus').
However, there is a strong tendency for more basic terms to avoid coda clusters, although Шаблон:Lang ('hundred'), Шаблон:Lang ('after'), Шаблон:Lang ('holy'), and the prefix Шаблон:Lang ('ex-') (which can be used as an interjection: Шаблон:Lang 'Down with the king!') are exceptions. Even when coda clusters occur in the source languages, they are often eliminated in Esperanto. For instance, many European languages have words relating to "body" with a root of Шаблон:Lang. This root gave rise to two words in Esperanto, neither of which keep the full cluster: Шаблон:Lang ('a military corps') (retaining the original Latin u), and Шаблон:Lang ('a biological body') (losing the s).
Many ordinary roots end in two or three consonants, such as Шаблон:Lang ('a bicycle'), Шаблон:Lang ('a shoulder'), Шаблон:Lang ('a needle'), Шаблон:Lang ('to cut'). However, these roots do not normally entail coda clusters except when followed by another consonant in compounds, or with poetic elision of the final -o. Even then, only sequences with decreasing sonority are possible, so although poetic Шаблон:Lang occurs, *Шаблон:Lang, *Шаблон:Lang, and *Шаблон:Lang do not. (Note that the humorous jargon Шаблон:Lang does not follow this restriction, because it elides the grammatical suffix of all nouns no matter how awkward the result.)
Within compounds, an epenthetic vowel is added to break up what would otherwise be unacceptable clusters of consonants. This vowel is most commonly the nominal affix -o, regardless of number or case, as in Шаблон:Lang ('a songbird') (the root Шаблон:Lang, 'to sing', is inherently a verb), but other part-of-speech endings may be used when -o- is judged to be grammatically inappropriate, as in Шаблон:Lang ('expensive'). There is a great deal of personal variation as to when an epenthetic vowel is used.
Allophonic variation
With only five oral and no nasal or long vowels, Esperanto allows a fair amount of allophonic variation, though the distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, and arguably Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, is phonemic. The Шаблон:IPA may be a labiodental fricative Шаблон:IPA or a labiodental approximant Шаблон:IPA, again in free variation; or Шаблон:IPA, especially in the sequences kv and gv (Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, like English "qu" and "gu"), but with Шаблон:IPA considered normative. Alveolar consonants t, d, n, l are acceptably either apical (as in English) or laminal (as in French, generally but incorrectly called "dental"). Postalveolars ĉ, ĝ, ŝ, ĵ may be palato-alveolar (semi-palatalized) Шаблон:IPA as in English and French, or retroflex (non-palatalized) Шаблон:IPA as in Polish, Russian, and Mandarin Chinese. H and ĥ may be voiced Шаблон:IPA, especially between vowels.
Rhotics
The consonant r can be realised in many ways, as it was defined differently in each language version of the Fundamento de Esperanto:[9]
- In the French Fundamento, it is defined as r. The French rhotic has a wide range of realizations: both the voiced uvular fricative or approximant Шаблон:IPA and the voiceless uvular fricative Шаблон:IPA, the uvular trill Шаблон:IPA, the alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA, and the alveolar tap Шаблон:IPA. These are all recognized as the phoneme Шаблон:IPA,[10] but the trills and the tap are considered dialectal.
- In the English Fundamento, it is defined as in rare, which is an alveolar approximant Шаблон:IPA.
- In the German Fundamento, it is defined as r. Most varieties of Standard German are spoken with a uvular rhotic, now usually a fricative or approximant Шаблон:IPA, rather than Шаблон:IPA. The alveolar pronunciation Шаблон:IPA is used in some standard German varieties of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland.
- In the Russian and Polish Fundamento, it is defined as р (cyrillic), which is most commonly an alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA.
The most common realization depends on the region and native language of the Esperanto speaker. For example, a very common realisation in English speaking countries is the alveolar flap Шаблон:IPA. Worldwide, the most common realisation is probably the alveolar trill Шаблон:IPA. The grammatical reference Plena Manlibro de Esperanta Gramatiko considers the uvular trill Шаблон:IPA to be perfectly acceptable.[11] In practice, the different pronunciations are understood and accepted by experienced Esperanto speakers.
Vowel length and quality
Vowel length is not phonemic in Esperanto. Vowels tend to be long in open stressed syllables and short otherwise.[6] Adjacent stressed syllables are not allowed in compound words, and when stress disappears in such situations, it may leave behind a residue of vowel length. Vowel length is sometimes presented as an argument for the phonemic status of the affricates, because vowels tend to be short before most consonant clusters (excepting stops plus l or r, as in many European languages), but long before /ĉ/, /ĝ/, /c/, and /dz/, though again this varies by speaker, with some speakers pronouncing a short vowel before /ĝ/, /c/, /dz/ and a long vowel only before /ĉ/.[6]
Vowel quality has never been an issue for /a/, /i/ and /u/, but has been much discussed for /e/ and /o/. Zamenhof recommended pronouncing the vowels /e/ and /o/ as mid Шаблон:IPA at all times. Kalocsay and Waringhien gave more complicated recommendations.[12] For example, they recommended pronouncing stressed /e/, /o/ as short open-mid Шаблон:IPA in closed syllables and long close-mid Шаблон:IPA in open syllables. However, this is widely considered unduly elaborate, and Zamenhof's recommendation of using mid qualities is considered the norm. For many speakers, however, the pronunciation of /e/ and /o/ reflects the details of their native language.
Epenthesis
Zamenhof noted that epenthetic glides may be inserted between dissimilar vowels, especially after high vowels as in Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Lang ('my'), Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Lang ('honey') and Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Lang ('further'). This is quite common, and there is no possibility of confusion, because /ij/ and /uŭ/ do not occur in Esperanto (though more general epenthesis could cause confusion between Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, as mentioned above). However, Zamenhof stated that in "severely regular" speech such epenthesis would not occur.[6]
Epenthetic glottal stops in vowel sequences such as Шаблон:Lang ('boa') are non-phonemic detail, allowed for the comfort of the speaker. Glottal stop is especially common in sequences of identical vowels, such as Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('hero'), and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('great-grandfather'). Other speakers, however, mark the hiatus by a change of intonation, such as by raising the pitch of the stressed vowel: Шаблон:Lang.
As in many languages, fricatives may become affricates after a nasal, via an epenthetic stop. Thus, the neologism Шаблон:Lang ('sense', as in the five senses) may be pronounced the same as the fundamental word Шаблон:Lang ('sense, meaning'), and the older term for the former, Шаблон:Lang, may be preferable.
An epenthetic vowel, most commonly the schwa, can be inserted to break up clusters that might be difficult to pronounce.
Poetic elision
Vowel elision is allowed with the grammatical suffix -o of singular nominative nouns, and the a of the article la, though this rarely occurs outside of poetry: Шаблон:Lang ('from the heart').
Normally semivowels are restricted to offglides in diphthongs. However, poetic meter may force the reduction of unstressed Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA to semivowels before a stressed vowel: Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA; Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
Assimilation
Zamenhof recognized place-assimilation of nasals before another consonant, such as n before a velar, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('bank') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('blood'), or before palatal Шаблон:IPA, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('mommy') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('sir'). However, he stated that "severely regular" speech would not have such variation from his ideal of 'one letter, one sound'.[6] Nonetheless, although the desirability of such allophony may be debated, the question almost never arises as to whether the m in Шаблон:Lang should remain bilabial or should assimilate to labiodental f (Шаблон:IPA), because this assimilation is nearly universal in human language. Indeed, where the orthography allows (e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'bonbon'), we see that assimilation can occur.
In addition, speakers of many languages (including Zamenhof's, though not always English) have regressive voicing assimilation, when two obstruents (consonants that occur in voiced-voiceless pairs) occur next to each other. Zamenhof did not mention this directly, but did indicate it indirectly, in that he didn't create compound words with adjacent obstruents that have mixed voicing. For example, by the phonotactics of both of Zamenhof's mother tongues, Yiddish and (Belo)Russian, Шаблон:Lang ('rose-colored', 'pink') would be pronounced the same as Шаблон:Lang ('dew-colored'), and so the preferred form for the former is Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:NoteTag Indeed, Kalocsay & Waringhien state that when voiced and voiceless consonants are adjacent, the assimilation of one of them is "inevitable". Thus one pronounces Шаблон:Lang ('eighty') as Шаблон:IPA, as if it were spelled "Шаблон:Lang"; Шаблон:Lang ('exist') as Шаблон:IPA, as if it were spelled "Шаблон:Lang"; Шаблон:Lang ('for example') as Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang ('support') as Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang ('for a long time') as Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang ('ringing of a sword') as Шаблон:IPA, etc.[6][13] Such assimilation likewise occurs in words that maintain Latinate orthography, such as Шаблон:Lang ('absolutely'), pronounced Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:Lang ('obtuse'), pronounced Шаблон:IPA, despite the superficially contrastive sequences in the words Шаблон:Lang ('apsis') and Шаблон:Lang ('optics').[6][13] Instead, the debate centers on the non-Latinate orthographic sequence kz, frequently found in Latinate words like Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang above.Шаблон:NoteTag It is sometimes claimed that kz is properly pronounced exactly as written, with mixed voicing, Шаблон:IPA, despite the fact that assimilation to Шаблон:IPA occurs in Russian, English (including the words 'example' and 'exist'), Polish (where it is even spelled Шаблон:Angbr), French and many other languages. These two positions are called Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang in Esperanto.Шаблон:NoteTag In practice, most Esperanto speakers assimilate kz to Шаблон:IPA and pronounce nk as Шаблон:IPA when speaking fluently.[13]
Voicing assimilation Voiceless obstruent p t c ĉ k f s ŝ ĥ Pronunciation before any voiced obstruent but v b d dz ĝ g v z ĵ Шаблон:IPA blink Voiced obstruent b d dz ĝ g v z ĵ Pronunciation before a voiceless obstruent p t c ĉ k f s ŝ
In compound lexical words, Zamenhof himself inserted an epenthetic vowel between obstruents with different voicing, as in Шаблон:Lang above, never Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang, never Шаблон:Lang as with some later writers; mixed voicing only occurred with grammatical words, for example with compound numbers and with prepositions used as prefixes, as in Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang above. V is never found before any consonant in Zamenhof's writing, because that would force it to contrast with ŭ.
Similarly, mixed sibilant sequences, as in the polymorphemic Шаблон:Lang ('to scatter'), tend to assimilate in rapid speech, sometimes completely (Шаблон:IPA).
Like the generally ignored regressive devoicing in words such as Шаблон:Lang, progressive devoicing tends to go unnoticed within obstruent–sonorant clusters, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('additional'; contrasts with Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'blue') and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('boy'; the kn- contrasts with gn-, as in Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA 'gnome'). Partial to full devoicing of the sonorant is probably the norm for most speakers.
Voicing assimilation of affricates and fricatives before nasals, as in Шаблон:Lang ('a detachment') and the suffix Шаблон:Lang ('-ism'), is both more noticeable and easier for most speakers to avoid, so Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Lang is less tolerated than Шаблон:IPA for Шаблон:Lang.
Loss of phonemic ĥ
The sound of Шаблон:Angbr, Шаблон:IPA, was always somewhat marginal in Esperanto, and there has been a strong move to merge it into Шаблон:IPA, starting with suggestions from Zamenhof himself.[14][15]Шаблон:Citation needed Dictionaries generally cross-reference Шаблон:Angbr and Шаблон:Angbr, but the sequence Шаблон:Angbr (as in Шаблон:Lang 'architecture') was replaced by Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:Lang) so completely by the early 20th century that few dictionaries even list Шаблон:Angbr as an option.Шаблон:Citation needed The central/eastern European form for 'Chinese', Шаблон:Lang, has been completely replaced with the western European form, Шаблон:Lang, a unique exception to the general pattern, perhaps because the word Шаблон:Lang ('cinematography') already existed. Other words, such as Шаблон:Lang ('chemistry') and Шаблон:Lang ('monk'), still vary but are more commonly found with Шаблон:Angbr (Шаблон:Lang). In a few cases, such as with words of Russian origin, Шаблон:Angbr may instead be replaced by Шаблон:Angbr. This merger has had only a few complications. Zamenhof gave Шаблон:Lang ('chorus') the alternative form Шаблон:Lang, because both Шаблон:Lang ('heart') and Шаблон:Lang ('hour') were taken. The two words still almost universally seen with Шаблон:Angbr are Шаблон:Lang ('echo') and Шаблон:Lang ('a Czech'). Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang ('check') already exist, though Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang is occasionally seen.
Proper names and borrowings
A common source of allophonic variation is borrowed words, especially proper names, when non-Esperantized remnants of the source-language orthography remain, or when novel sequences are created in order to avoid duplicating existing roots. For example, it is doubtful that many people fully pronounce the g in Шаблон:Lang ('Washington') as either Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, or pronounce the Шаблон:Angbr in Шаблон:Lang ('Buddha') at all. Such situations are unstable, and in many cases dictionaries recognize that certain spellings (and therefore pronunciations) are inadvisable. For example, the physical unit "watt" was first borrowed as Шаблон:Lang, to distinguish it from Шаблон:Lang ('cotton-wool'), and this is the only form found in dictionaries in 1930. However, initial Шаблон:Angbr violates Esperanto phonotactics, and by 1970 there was an alternative spelling, Шаблон:Lang. This was also unsatisfactory, however, because of the geminate Шаблон:Angbr, and by 2000 the effort had been given up, with Шаблон:Angbr now the advised spelling for both 'watt' and 'cotton-wool'. Some recent dictionaries no longer even list initial Шаблон:Angbr in their index.[16] Likewise, several dictionaries now list the spellings Шаблон:Angbr for 'Washington' and Шаблон:Angbr for 'Buddha'.
Violations
Before Esperanto phonotactics became fixed, foreign words were adopted with spellings that violated the apparent intentions of Zamenhof and the norms that would develop later, such as Шаблон:LangШаблон:NoteTag ('poop deck'), Шаблон:LangШаблон:NoteTag ('watt'), and Шаблон:LangШаблон:NoteTag ('sports match'). Many of these coinages have proven to be unstable, and have either fallen out of use or been replaced with pronunciations more in keeping with the developing norms, such as Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang. On the other hand, Шаблон:LangШаблон:NoteTag ('Yiddish') was also sometimes criticized on phonotactical grounds, but was used by Zamenhof after its introduction in the Plena Vortaro as a replacement for novjuda and judgermana and is well established.
See also
Notes
References
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- ↑ Burkina, O. (2005): "Шаблон:Lang", Шаблон:Lang
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ John C. Wells, Шаблон:Lang (.doc document).
- ↑ 4,0 4,1 Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ 6,0 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6 Шаблон:Lang, §17
- ↑ The pronunciations of the consonants given here are those found at the beginnings of words and between vowels, voicing assimilation.
- ↑ Edmond Privat, Шаблон:Lang 1980:10
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite journalШаблон:Rp
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Lang 4th edition, 1980
- ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 Miroslav Malovec, 1999, Шаблон:Lang, §2.9.
- ↑ Chris Gledhill. "Regularity and Representation in Spelling: the case of Esperanto". Journal of the Simplified Spelling Society 1994-1 pp 17–23.[1]
- ↑ R. Bartholdt and A. Christen, H. Res. 415 "A resolution providing for the study of Esperanto as an auxiliary language". Hearings before the Committee on Education, House of Representatives, 63rd Congress, 2nd Session 1914 March 17.[2]
- ↑ For instance, the Reta Vortaro didn't list Шаблон:Angbr for years,[3] until it added an entry for Шаблон:Lang 'wow!' in 2011.[4]
