Английская Википедия:Esperanto vocabulary

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:More citations needed Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Esperanto sidebar The original word base of Esperanto contained around 900 root words and was defined in Unua Libro ("First Book"), published by L. L. Zamenhof in 1887. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto dictionary, Universala vortaro ("International Dictionary"), which was written in five languages and supplied a larger set of root words, adding 1740 new words.

The rules of the Esperanto language allow speakers to borrow words as needed, recommending only that they look for the most international words, and that they borrow one basic word and derive others from it, rather than borrowing many words with related meanings. Since then, many words have been borrowed from other languages, primarily those of Western Europe. In recent decades, most of the new borrowings or coinages have been technical or scientific terms; terms in everyday use are more likely to be derived from existing words (for example Шаблон:Lang [a computer], from Шаблон:Lang [to compute]), or extending them to cover new meanings (for example Шаблон:Lang [a mouse], now also signifies a computer input device, as in English). There are frequent debates among Esperanto speakers about whether a particular borrowing is justified, or whether the need can be met by derivation or extending the meaning of existing words.

Origins

Шаблон:Main Esperanto occupies a middle ground between "naturalistic" constructed languages such as Interlingua, which take words en masse from their source languages with little internal derivation, and a priori conlangs such as Solresol, in which the words have no historical connection to other languages. In Esperanto, root words are borrowed and retain much of the form of their source language, whether the phonetic form (Шаблон:Lang from ex-) or orthographic form (Шаблон:Lang from team). However, each root can then form dozens of derivations that may bear little resemblance to equivalent words in the source languages, such as Шаблон:Lang (government), which is derived from the Latinate root reg (to rule).

Word formation

One of the ways Zamenhof made Esperanto easier to learn than ethnic languages was by creating a regular and highly productive derivational morphology. Through the judicious use of lexical affixes (prefixes and suffixes), the core vocabulary needed for communication was greatly reduced, making Esperanto a more agglutinative language than most European languages. It has been estimated that on average one root in Esperanto is the communicative equivalent of ten words in English.Шаблон:Citation needed

However, a contrary tendency is apparent in cultured and Greco-Latin technical vocabulary, which most Europeans see as "international" and therefore take into Esperanto en masse, despite the fact they are not truly universal. Many Asians consider thisШаблон:Citation needed to be an onerous and unnecessary burden on the memory, when it is so easy to derive equivalent words internally (for example by calquing them, which is what Chinese often does). This sparks frequent debates as to whether a particular root is justified, and sometimes results in duplicates of native and borrowed vocabulary. An example is "calligraphy", which occurs both as a calqued Шаблон:Lang ("writing of beauty") and as the direct borrowing Шаблон:Lang. A similar development has also occurred in English (brotherly vs. fraternal), German (Шаблон:Lang vs. Шаблон:Lang for ornithology), Japanese (Шаблон:Lang vs. Шаблон:Lang for baseball), Spanish (Шаблон:Lang vs. Шаблон:Lang for basketball), French (Шаблон:Lang vs. Шаблон:Lang), and other languages. However, although the debates in ethnic languages are motivated by nationalism or issues of cultural identity, in Esperanto the debates are largely motivated by differing views on how to make the language practical and accessible.

Affixes

One of the most immediately useful derivational affixes for the beginner is the prefix Шаблон:Lang, which derives antonyms: Шаблон:Lang (heavy), Шаблон:Lang (light); Шаблон:Lang (upwards), Шаблон:Lang (downwards); Шаблон:Lang (to love), Шаблон:Lang (to hate); Шаблон:Lang (light), Шаблон:Lang (darkness). However, except in jokes, this prefix is not used when an antonym exists in the basic vocabulary: Шаблон:Lang (south), not "malnorda" from 'north'; Шаблон:Lang (to be lacking, intr.), not "malesti" from 'to be'.

The creation of new words through the use of grammatical (i.e. inflectional) suffixes, such as Шаблон:Lang (mere) from Шаблон:Lang (only), Шаблон:Lang (contemporary) from Шаблон:Lang (then), or Шаблон:Lang (sight) from Шаблон:Lang (to see), is covered in the article on Esperanto grammar. What follows is a list of what are usually called "affixes". Most of them, however, are actually lexical roots, in that they can be used as independent words and their relative order in a compound is determined by semantics, not grammar. They are called "affixes" mainly because they derive from affixes in Esperanto's source languages. Some are true affixes in that, although they may be used independently, their order within a word is fixed by the grammar. Only a few cannot be used independently and so correspond to how a typical affix behaves in English.

When a root receives more than one affix, their order matters, because affixes modify the entire stem they are attached to. That is, the outer ones modify the inner ones. Most affixes are themselves roots, and as such have an inherent part of speech. This is indicated by the final part-of-speech vowel in the suffix list below. A few affixes do not affect the part of speech of the root; for the suffixes listed in the tables below, this is indicated by a hyphen in place of the final vowel.

List of lexical suffixes

Шаблон:Lang	pejorative (expresses negative affect or a poor opinion of the object or action)	Шаблон:Lang (to scrawl, from 'write'); Шаблон:Lang (foul weather); Шаблон:Lang (a hovel, from 'house'); Шаблон:Lang (to gape at, from 'look at'); Шаблон:Lang (tawdry, from 'beautiful'); Шаблон:Lang (junk, from Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (to screw up, with Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (yuck!)
Шаблон:Nowrap	frequent, repeated, or continual action (often imperfective); as a noun, an action or process	Шаблон:Lang (to keep on running); Шаблон:Lang (a speech, from 'talk, speak'); Шаблон:Lang (to carry on); Шаблон:Lang (continual)
Шаблон:Lang	a concrete manifestation; (with a noun root) a product	Шаблон:Lang (food, from 'eat'); Шаблон:Lang (news, a novelty, from 'new'); Шаблон:Lang (an ice[cream], from 'ice'); Шаблон:Lang (beef, from 'bovine'); Шаблон:Lang (a snafu, from Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (a thing);
Шаблон:Lang	a member, follower, participant, inhabitant	Шаблон:Lang (a Christian); Шаблон:Lang (a US American) [cf. Шаблон:Lang (a continental American)]; Шаблон:Lang (a crew member); Шаблон:Lang (a classmate, from 'same' and 'course'); Шаблон:Lang (a kindred spirit, from 'same' and 'idea'); Шаблон:Lang (a member)
Шаблон:Lang	a collective group without specific number	Шаблон:Lang (a forest, from 'tree'); Шаблон:Lang (a dictionary, from 'word' [a set expression]); Шаблон:Lang (humanity, from 'human' [a set expression; 'crowd, mob' is Шаблон:Lang]); Шаблон:Lang (a flock of sheep); Шаблон:Lang (a fleet of ships); Шаблон:Lang (a society [group of members], from Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (a government, from 'rule, govern' and Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (a herd, group, set)
Шаблон:Lang	masculine affectionate form; the root is truncated	Шаблон:Lang (Jack); Шаблон:Lang (daddy); Шаблон:Lang (bro); Шаблон:Lang (dear friend); Шаблон:Lang (the 'boys')
Шаблон:Lang	possible	Шаблон:Lang (believable); Шаблон:Lang (visible); Шаблон:Lang (possibly)
Шаблон:Lang	an abstract quality	Шаблон:Lang (friendship); Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang (goodness); Шаблон:Lang (Italianesque); Шаблон:Lang (character [sum of qualities], with Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	augmentative; sometimes pejorative connotations when used with people	Шаблон:Lang (a mansion, from 'house'); Шаблон:Lang (a giant, from 'man'); Шаблон:Lang (a tome, from 'book'); Шаблон:Lang (boiling hot); Шаблон:Lang (to guffaw, from 'laugh'); Шаблон:Lang (great, humongous)
Шаблон:Lang	a place characterized by the root (not used for toponyms)	Шаблон:Lang (a school, from 'to learn'), Шаблон:Lang (a store, from 'to sell'), Шаблон:Lang (a court, from 'to judge'), Шаблон:Lang (a kitchen, from 'to cook'), Шаблон:Lang (a kennel, from 'dog'), Шаблон:Lang (a desert, from 'without water'); Шаблон:Lang (provenance, from 'to come from'); Шаблон:Lang (the appropriate place)
Шаблон:Lang	having a propensity, tendency	Шаблон:Lang (playful), Шаблон:Lang (talkative), Шаблон:Lang (credulous, from 'believe'); Шаблон:Lang (flammable, from 'burn'); Шаблон:Lang (inclination); Шаблон:Lang (unwilling, with Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	mandatory	Шаблон:Lang (payable), Шаблон:Lang (required reading)
Шаблон:Lang	the smallest part	Шаблон:Lang (a link, from 'chain'); Шаблон:Lang (a spark, from 'fire'); Шаблон:Lang (a snowflake, from 'snow'), Шаблон:Lang (a stitch, from 'sew'), Шаблон:Lang (a splinter, from 'wood'); Шаблон:Lang (an ommatidium, from 'eye'); Шаблон:Lang (a U.S. state, from 'USA'); Шаблон:Lang (a morpheme, from 'word'); Шаблон:Lang (a crumb etc.)
Шаблон:Lang	a leader, boss	Шаблон:Lang (a school principal [see Шаблон:Lang]); Шаблон:Lang (a mayor, from 'city'); Шаблон:Lang (a centurion, from 'hundred'); Шаблон:Lang (a president of the United States, from 'USA'); Шаблон:Lang (board of directors, with Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	diminutive; sometimes affectionate connotations when used with people	Шаблон:Lang (a hut, from 'house'); Шаблон:Lang (a booklet); Шаблон:Lang (lukewarm); Шаблон:Lang (to smile, from 'laugh'); Шаблон:Lang (to crack, fracture, from 'break'); Шаблон:Lang (to simmer, from 'boil'); Шаблон:Lang (slightly)
Шаблон:Lang	a country named after a geographic feature, and now after an ethnicity [unofficial]	Шаблон:Lang (Mexico, from 'Mexico City'); Шаблон:Lang (Nigeria, from 'the river Niger'); Шаблон:Lang (England, from 'English person'); Шаблон:Lang (fatherland, from 'father') [cannot be used as a root Шаблон:Lang, because that means 'something']
Шаблон:Lang	male [unofficial]	(see gender below)
Шаблон:Lang	an offspring, descendant	Шаблон:Lang (a kitten); Шаблон:Lang (a prince, from 'king'); Шаблон:Lang (a sapling, from 'tree'); Шаблон:Lang (an Israelite); Шаблон:Lang (a kit, pup, kid, etc.); Шаблон:Lang (a clan, tribe, with Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	to make, to cause (transitivizer/causative)	Шаблон:Lang (to kill, from 'die'); Шаблон:Lang (to clean); Шаблон:Lang (to have built); Шаблон:Lang (to cause)
Шаблон:Lang	to become (intransitivizer/inchoative/middle voice)	Шаблон:Lang (to enjoy oneself); Шаблон:Lang (to be born); Шаблон:Lang (to blush, from 'red'); Шаблон:Lang (to join, from Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (to become)
Шаблон:Lang	an instrument, a tool	Шаблон:Lang (a toy, from 'play'); Шаблон:Lang (a knife, from 'cut'); Шаблон:Lang (a remedy, from 'help'); Шаблон:Lang (a solution, from 'solve'); Шаблон:Lang (a tool); Шаблон:Lang (equipment, set of tools, with Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	female	Шаблон:Lang (a cow); Шаблон:Lang (a mother); Шаблон:Lang (a female student); Шаблон:Lang (a female)
Шаблон:Lang	worthy of	Шаблон:Lang (memorable); Шаблон:Lang (credible, from 'believe'); Шаблон:Lang (dependable, trustworthy, from 'trust'); Шаблон:Lang (something to cry about, from 'weep, cry' and Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (worthy)
Шаблон:Lang	a holder, sheath	Шаблон:Lang (a scabbard, from 'sword'); Шаблон:Lang (a candle-holder); Шаблон:Lang (a tooth socket); Шаблон:Lang (stirrup, from 'foot'); Шаблон:Lang (a cartridge, from 'bullet'); Шаблон:Lang (a socket, etc.)
Шаблон:Lang	a doctrine, system (as in English)	Шаблон:Lang (Communism); Шаблон:Lang (Christianity); Шаблон:Lang (an ism)
Шаблон:Lang	person professionally or avocationally occupied with an idea or activity (a narrower use than in English)	Шаблон:Lang (teacher); Шаблон:Lang (dentist); Шаблон:Lang (a beekeeper); Шаблон:Lang (a communist); Шаблон:Lang (a member of parliament/congress)
Шаблон:Lang	feminine affectionate form; the root is truncated	Шаблон:Lang (Joanie); Шаблон:Lang (mommy); Шаблон:Lang (granny); Шаблон:Lang (aunty); Шаблон:Lang (nanny, from 'nurse'); Шаблон:Lang (dear friend); Шаблон:Lang (the 'girls', from Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	multiple	Шаблон:Lang (double); Шаблон:Lang (triply); Шаблон:Lang (more than once)
Шаблон:Lang	fraction	Шаблон:Lang (half [of]); Шаблон:Lang (one hundredth); Шаблон:Lang (a tithe, from 'ten' and Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (a fraction); Шаблон:Lang (to divide into equal parts, with Шаблон:Lang)
Шаблон:Lang	in a collective group of specific number	Шаблон:Lang (two together; by twos = Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (a trilogy); Шаблон:Lang (how many together?); Шаблон:Lang (together in a group, from Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (drop by drop, from 'drop'; = Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (isolated, individual); Шаблон:Lang (a group, unit, team); Шаблон:Lang (collective)
Шаблон:Lang	a (loose) container, country (archaic when referring to a political entity), a tree of a certain fruit (archaic)	Шаблон:Lang (a purse, from 'money'); Шаблон:Lang (a saltshaker, from 'salt'); Шаблон:Lang (a washbasin, from 'wash'); Шаблон:Lang (a beehive, from 'bee'); Шаблон:Lang (England [[[:Шаблон:Lang]] in current usage]); Шаблон:Lang (Kurdistan, the Kurdish lands); Шаблон:Lang (appletree [now Шаблон:Lang]); Шаблон:Lang (a container)
Шаблон:Lang	one characterized by the root	Шаблон:Lang (a youth); Шаблон:Lang (a saint, from 'holy'); Шаблон:Lang (a beginning reader [student, not book], from Шаблон:Lang "ABC's"); Шаблон:Lang (a mammal, from 'breast'); Шаблон:Lang (a neighbor, from 'near'); Шаблон:Lang (a woman with many children, from Шаблон:Lang 'many' and Шаблон:Lang 'child'); Шаблон:Lang (someone without merit, from 'without' and the suffix Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang ~ Шаблон:Lang (a wretch, from the suffix Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (a contemporary, from 'then'); Шаблон:Lang (a wisp of a girl); Шаблон:Lang (a fellow)
Шаблон:Lang	undefined ad hoc suffix (used sparingly: see list)	Шаблон:Lang (a collar, from 'neck'); Шаблон:Lang (to crucify, from 'cross'); Шаблон:Lang (a cold, from 'cold'); Шаблон:Lang (to fulfill, from 'full'); Шаблон:Lang (to hug, from 'arm'); Шаблон:Lang (to woo, from 'lovable' [see Шаблон:Lang]); Шаблон:Lang (clockwise, from 'right'); Шаблон:Lang (appellate court, from 'court(yard)'); Шаблон:Lang (high society, from 'world'); Шаблон:Lang (a community, from 'common'); Шаблон:Lang (approximately, from 'near'); Шаблон:Lang (hexadecimal, from '16'); Шаблон:Lang (a thingamajig)

List of prefixes

Шаблон:Lang	relation by marriage, -in-law	Шаблон:Lang (a father-in-law); Шаблон:Lang (to marry into a family, from Шаблон:Lang 'a relative' and Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (to marry one's dead brother's wife, from Шаблон:Lang 'to marry'); Шаблон:Lang (a sister-wife); Шаблон:Lang ([jocular] a friend of one's spouse)
Шаблон:Lang	separation, scattering	Шаблон:Lang (to throw about, from 'throw'); Шаблон:Lang (to distribute, from 'send'); Шаблон:Lang (to split by atomic fission, from 'atom'); Шаблон:Lang (to escape in all directions, like pages dropping from a book with a disintegrated binding, from 'free' and Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (scram!)
Шаблон:Lang	beginning, sudden, or momentary action (often perfective)	Шаблон:Lang (a flash [of lightning], from 'shine'); Шаблон:Lang (to fall in love); Шаблон:Lang (to cry out); Шаблон:Lang (to catch sight of); Шаблон:Lang (to start); Шаблон:Lang (inclusive 'from'); Шаблон:Lang (off to war!); Шаблон:Lang (hop to!)
Шаблон:Lang	former, ex-	Шаблон:Lang (an ex-husband); Шаблон:Lang (a steer [jocular, from 'bull']); Шаблон:Lang (former); Шаблон:Lang (previously customary); Шаблон:Lang (Down with our leader!)
Шаблон:Lang	shameful, nasty, disgusting, filthy	Шаблон:Lang (a wicked person); Шаблон:Lang (foul-minded); Шаблон:Lang (a profane word); Шаблон:Lang (a dirty mouth); Шаблон:Lang (vermin, from 'animal, beast'); Шаблон:Lang (vile); Шаблон:Lang (For shame!); Шаблон:Lang (Shame on you!)
Шаблон:Lang	both sexes together	Шаблон:Lang (parents); Шаблон:Lang (ladies and gentlemen); Шаблон:Lang (waiters and waitresses); Шаблон:Lang (the Zamenhofs)
Шаблон:Lang	antonym	Шаблон:Lang (small, from 'large'); Шаблон:Lang (poor, from 'rich'); Шаблон:Lang (empty, from 'full'); Шаблон:Lang (a male [jocular], from Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (counter-clockwise [see Шаблон:Lang]); Шаблон:Lang (a law that cannot be disobeyed, from Шаблон:Lang 'to obey'), Шаблон:Lang (opposite)
Шаблон:Lang	incorrectly, awry	Шаблон:Lang (to misplace); Шаблон:Lang (to wrongly accuse); Шаблон:Lang (disparaging, from Шаблон:Lang 'well-known' and the causative suffix Шаблон:Lang); Шаблон:Lang (incorrectly)
Шаблон:Lang	great-(grand-), primordial, primitive, proto-	Шаблон:Lang (a great-grandfather); Шаблон:Lang (a forefather); Шаблон:Lang (a prehistoric beast); Шаблон:Lang (ancestral home); Шаблон:Lang (Proto-Indo-European)
Шаблон:Lang	over again, back again	Шаблон:Lang (to send back); Шаблон:Lang (to rebuild); Шаблон:Lang (to rebound, from 'jump'); Шаблон:Lang (to repeat); Шаблон:Lang (to renew a subscription, from 'subscribe'); Шаблон:Lang (reflection, glare, from 'shine'); Шаблон:Lang (a return ticket, from Шаблон:Lang 'to go'); Шаблон:Lang (once again, from '[x] times'); Шаблон:Lang ("Шаблон:Lang", from Шаблон:Lang 'until' and Шаблон:Lang 'sight')

There are, in addition, affixes not listed here: technical affixes, such as the biological family suffix Шаблон:Lang seen in Шаблон:Lang (Guineafowls),Шаблон:Citation needed and a few non-standard affixes taken from Ido, such as Шаблон:Lang (full of) in Шаблон:Lang (mountainous), Шаблон:Lang (muscular), Шаблон:Lang (porous). A proposed suffix Шаблон:Lang makes adjectives out of nouns made from adjectives: Шаблон:Lang (caloric, from Шаблон:Lang warm), Шаблон:Lang (nationalize).

Lexical (i.e. derivational) affixes may act as roots by taking one of the grammatical suffixes: Шаблон:Lang (opposite), Шаблон:Lang (slight), Шаблон:Lang (a member), Шаблон:Lang (a doohickey), Шаблон:Lang (possibly), Шаблон:Lang (to become), Шаблон:Lang (a bit, a crumb). Also, through compounding, lexical roots may act as affixes: Шаблон:Lang (to see), Шаблон:Lang (to be able to), Шаблон:Lang (able to see, not blind); Шаблон:Lang (head, chief), Шаблон:Lang (a city), Шаблон:Lang (a capital). It is quite common for prepositions to be used as prefixes: Шаблон:Lang (to arrive), from Шаблон:Lang (to) and Шаблон:Lang (come); Шаблон:Lang (hopeless), from Шаблон:Lang (without) and Шаблон:Lang (hope); Шаблон:Lang (to consider), from Шаблон:Lang (about) and Шаблон:Lang (to think); Шаблон:Lang (sell wholesale), from Шаблон:Lang (at the rate of) and Шаблон:Lang (large [quantity]), etc. There is even Шаблон:Lang (registration form), from the preposition Шаблон:Lang (to) and the suffixes Шаблон:Lang (to become) and Шаблон:Lang (an instrument).

Compounds

Compound words in Esperanto are similar to English, in that the final root is basic to the meaning. The roots may be joined together directly, or with an epenthetic (linking) vowel to aid pronunciation. This epenthetic vowel is most commonly the nominal suffix Шаблон:Lang, used regardless of number or case, but other grammatical suffixes may be used when the inherent part of speech of the first root of the compound needs to be changed.

Шаблон:Lang (a songbird) versus Шаблон:Lang (a birdsong)

Шаблон:Lang (a sailship) versus Шаблон:Lang (a ship sail)

Шаблон:Lang (a centennial [a year of a hundred]) versus Шаблон:Lang (a century [a hundred of years])

Шаблон:Lang (expensive, with an adverbial Шаблон:Lang)

Prepositions are frequently found in compounds, and behave much like prefixes,

Шаблон:Lang (to consider something) versus Шаблон:Lang (to think about something).

Since affixes may be used as root words, and roots may combine like affixes, the boundary between the two is blurred. Many so-called affixes are indistinguishable from other roots. However, "true" affixes are grammatically fixed as being either prefixes or suffixes, whereas the order of roots in compounds is determined by semantics.

Although Zamenhof did not prescribe rules for which consonant sequences are not acceptable and therefore when the epenthetic Шаблон:Lang is required, he generally omitted it when the result was a sequence of two consonants, as in Шаблон:Lang above. However, he inserted an Шаблон:Lang,

• when the two consonants that would come together differed in voicing, and would both become different consonants if their voicing were changed, as in Шаблон:Lang (rose-colored). This prevents the voicing assimilation that is so prevalent in the world's languages, including Zamenhof's Russian and German, and that would result in "Шаблон:Lang" being mispronounced as Шаблон:IPA (dew-colored) or Шаблон:IPA. This is not a problem for sonorants, such as l, r, m, n, j, which do not have voiceless equivalents in Esperanto, so the Шаблон:Lang may be safely dropped from Шаблон:Lang.
• when the two consonants would be the same, as in Шаблон:Lang (the evening of life). This reflects the general lack of geminate consonants in Esperanto. However, epenthetic vowels are never used with affixes or prepositions, so double consonants are found in such cases, as in Шаблон:Lang (short).
• when the first element was very short and might not otherwise be recognized, as in Шаблон:Lang (godlike).
• when the compound would otherwise be homonymous with an existing word, as in Шаблон:Lang (shell game); cf. Шаблон:Lang (conclusion).

Reduplication

Reduplication is only marginally used in Esperanto. It has an intensifying effect similar to that of the suffix Шаблон:Lang. The common examples are Шаблон:Lang (chock-full), from Шаблон:Lang (full), Шаблон:Lang (finally, at last), from Шаблон:Lang (final), and Шаблон:Lang (once in a while), from Шаблон:Lang (once, sometimes). Reduplication is only used with monosyllabic roots that do not require an epenthetic vowel when compounded.

Some examples

Шаблон:Lang (a [female] lover)

Шаблон:Lang (lovable)

Шаблон:Lang (loving)

Шаблон:Lang (to feel distaste for)

Шаблон:Lang (hopeful [of a situation: inspiring hope])

Шаблон:Lang (hopeful [of a person: tending to hope])

Шаблон:Lang (the Esperanto community)

Шаблон:Lang (broken Esperanto)

Affixes may be used in novel ways, creating new words that don't exist in any national language. Sometimes the results are poetic: In one Esperanto novel, a man opens an old book with a broken spine, and the yellowed pages Шаблон:Lang [from the root Шаблон:Lang (free) and the affixes Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang].Шаблон:Citation needed There is no equivalent way to express this in English, but it creates a very strong visual image of the pages escaping the book and scattering over the floor. More importantly, the word is comprehensible the first time one hears it.

Derivation by affix greatly expands a speaker's vocabulary, sometimes beyond what they know in their native language. For instance, the English word Шаблон:Lang (a single lens of a compound eye) is rather obscure, but a child would be able to coin an Esperanto equivalent, Шаблон:Lang, from Шаблон:Lang 'an eye' (or perhaps, more precisely, Шаблон:Lang, by first coining Шаблон:Lang for 'a compound eye'). In this way the Esperanto root Шаблон:Lang (see) regularly corresponds to some two dozen English words: see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for some of these concepts.

In the Fundamento, Zamenhof illustrated word formation by deriving the equivalents of recuperate, disease, hospital, germ, patient, doctor, medicine, pharmacy, etc. from Шаблон:Lang (healthy). Not all of the resulting words translate well into English, in many cases because they distinguish fine shades of meaning that English lacks: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang. Perhaps half of these words are in common use, but the others (and more) are available if needed.

Correlatives

The correlatives are a paradigm of pro-forms, used to ask and answer the questions what, where, when, why, who, whose, how, how much, and what kind. They are constructed from set elements so that correlatives with similar meanings have similar forms: There are nine endings corresponding to the nine wh- questions, and five initial elements that perform the functions of asking, answering, denying, being inclusive, and being indefinite about these nine questions. For example, the words Шаблон:Lang (when) and Шаблон:Lang (who, which), with the initial Шаблон:Lang of questions, ask about time and individuals, whereas the Шаблон:Lang (then) and Шаблон:Lang (this/that one), with the same endings but the initial Шаблон:Lang of demonstratives, answer those questions, and the words Шаблон:Lang (never) Шаблон:Lang (no-one) deny those questions. Thus by learning these 14 elements the speaker acquires a paradigm of 45 adverbs and pronouns.

The correlatives beginning Шаблон:Lang correspond to the English demonstratives in th- (this, thus, then, there etc.), whereas Шаблон:Lang corresponds to Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang to some-. The correlatives beginning with Шаблон:Lang have a double function, as interrogative and relative pronouns and adverbs, just as the wh- words do in English: Шаблон:Lang (Which horse?); Шаблон:Lang (The horse that ran away).

The adjectival determiners ending in Шаблон:Lang have the usual dual function of adjectives: standing alone as proforms, as in Шаблон:Lang (everyone); and modifying a noun, as in Шаблон:Lang (every day). Those ending in Шаблон:Lang are exclusively used standing alone: Шаблон:Lang (everything).

The correlatives have a genitive case ending in Шаблон:Lang. Therefore, the adjectival correlatives, ending in Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, do not play that role, as adjectival personal pronouns such as Шаблон:Lang ("my") do. However, adjectival correlatives do agree in number and case with the nouns they modify, as any other adjectives: Шаблон:Lang (The horses which I saw). They, as well as the independent determiners ending in Шаблон:Lang, also take the accusative case when standing in for the object of a clause. The accusative of motion is used with the place correlatives in Шаблон:Lang, forming Шаблон:Lang (hither, whither, thither, etc.).

Table of correlatives

		Question ("What")	Indication ("This/that")	Indefinite ("Some")	Universal ("Each, every")	Negative ("No")
		ki–	ti–	i–	ĉi–	neni–
Quality	–a	kia (what kind/sort/type of)	tia (such a)	ia (some kind/sort/type of)	ĉia (every kind/sort/type of)	nenia (no kind/sort/type of)
Reason	–al	kial (why)	tial (for that reason, therefore)	ial (for some reason)	ĉial (for all reasons)	nenial (for no reason)
Time	–am	kiam (when)	tiam (then)	iam (sometime)	ĉiam (always)	neniam (never)
Place	–e	kie (where)	tie (there)	ie (somewhere)	ĉie (everywhere)	nenie (nowhere)
Manner	–el	kiel (how, as)	tiel (thus, as)	iel (somehow)	ĉiel (in every way)	neniel (no-how, in no way)
Association	–es	kies (whose)	ties (this/that one's)	ies (someone's)	ĉies (everyone's)	nenies (no one's)
Thing	–o	kio (what)	tio (this/that)	io (something)	ĉio (everything)	nenio (nothing)
Amount	–om	kiom (how much)	tiom (that much)	iom (some, a bit)	ĉiom (all of it)	neniom (none)
Individual	–u	kiu (who, which one; which [horse])	tiu (that one; that [horse])	iu (someone; some [horse])	ĉiu (everyone; each [horse], all [horses])	neniu (no one; no [horse])

Correlative particles

Several adverbial particles are used primarily with the correlatives: Шаблон:Lang indicates generality, Шаблон:Lang indicates proximity, and Шаблон:Lang indicates distance. (Without these particles, demonstratives such as Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are not specific about distance, though they are usually translated as "that".)

Шаблон:Lang (whatever)

Шаблон:Lang (anything)

Шаблон:Lang (that [general]) [cannot modify a noun]

Шаблон:Lang (that one) [can modify a noun: Шаблон:Lang (that boy)]

Шаблон:Lang (those)

Шаблон:Lang (this one)

Шаблон:Lang (that one yonder)

Шаблон:Lang (hither [to here])

Шаблон:Lang (each/every dog)

Шаблон:Lang (all dogs)

Шаблон:Lang (all these dogs)

An extension of the original paradigm

Sometimes the correlative system is extended to the root Шаблон:Lang (other), at least when the resulting word is unambiguous,

Шаблон:Lang (in another way), Шаблон:Lang (someone else's).

Шаблон:Lang, however, would be ambiguous as to whether the original meaning "otherwise" or the correlative "elsewhere" were intended, so Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang "place") is used for "elsewhere".

As a practical matter, only Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are seen with any frequency, and even they are condemned by many speakers.

Interrogative vs relative pronouns

Examples of the interrogative versus relative uses of the Шаблон:Lang words:

Шаблон:Lang (Who stole my ring?)

Шаблон:Lang (The police haven't caught the thieves who_[plural] stole my ring.)

Шаблон:Lang (How did you do that?)

Шаблон:Lang (I don't know how to do that.)

Also,

Шаблон:Lang (What kind of man is he?)

Шаблон:Lang (What a man!)

Note that standard Esperanto punctuation puts a comma before the relative word (a correlative in Шаблон:Lang or the conjunction Шаблон:Lang, "that"), a feature common to many Slavic languages.

Derivatives

Various parts of speech may be derived from the correlatives, just as from any other roots: Шаблон:Lang (eternal), Шаблон:Lang (ubiquitous), Шаблон:Lang (contemporary), Шаблон:Lang (a reason), Шаблон:Lang (a little bit), Шаблон:Lang (which floor?) [This last requests an ordinal answer of how many floors up, like Шаблон:Lang (the 16th), rather than asking someone to simply point out which floor, which would be asked with Шаблон:Lang. The same form is used for asking time: Шаблон:Lang, literally "How-manyeth hour is it?"]

Although the initial and final elements of the correlatives are not roots or affixes, in that they cannot normally be independently combined with other words (for instance, there is no genitive case in Шаблон:Lang for nouns), the initial element of the Шаблон:Lang correlatives is an exception, as seen in Шаблон:Lang (a nobody), from Шаблон:Lang plus Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang, to nullify or destroy, from Шаблон:Lang plus the causative Шаблон:Lang.

Gender

Usually, feminine nouns are derived from epicene (genderless) roots via the suffix Шаблон:Lang. A relatively small number of Esperanto roots are semantically masculine or feminine. In some but not all cases, masculine roots also have feminine derivatives via Шаблон:Lang. Usage is consistent for only a few dozen words. For others, people may differ in usage, or it may be difficult to tell whether a word is gendered because of social custom or because of the word itself.

Masculine roots

A small (and decreasing Шаблон:Citation needed) number of noun roots, mostly titles and kinship terms, are inherently masculine unless the feminine suffix Шаблон:Lang or the inclusive prefix Шаблон:Lang are added. For example, there are Шаблон:Lang (father), Шаблон:Lang (mother), and Шаблон:Lang (parents), whereas there is no proper word for Шаблон:Lang in the singular (as explained in a following section). There are other words, such as Шаблон:Lang (pope), which are generally assumed to be masculine due to historical reality, but there is no reason a feminine form "papino" couldn't be used in fiction, or if customs change.

The original setup

In the early twentieth century, members of a profession were assumed to be masculine unless specified otherwise with Шаблон:Lang, reflecting the expectations of most industrial societies. That is, Шаблон:Lang was a male secretary, and Шаблон:Lang was a male teacher. This was the case for all words ending in Шаблон:Lang, as well as Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang "a rich man"), Шаблон:Lang and ethnicities (Шаблон:Lang "a male Christian", Шаблон:Lang "an Englishman"), Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang "a male mayor"), and the participles Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:Lang "a male beginner"). Many domestic animals were also masculine (Шаблон:Lang "bull", Шаблон:Lang "billygoat", Шаблон:Lang "rooster"). These generally became gender-neutral over the course of the century, as many similar words did in English, because of social transformation.

Once such a word is used ambiguously by a significant number of speakers or writers, it can no longer be assumed to be masculine. Language guides suggest using all ambiguous words neutrally, and many people find this the least confusing approach—and so the ranks of masculine words gradually dwindle.

The current situation

There is still variation in many of the above words, depending on the social expectations and language background of the speaker. Many of the words are not clearly either masculine or epicene today. For example, the plural Шаблон:Lang is generally understood to mean "cattle", not "bulls", and similarly the plurals Шаблон:Lang (Englishpeople) and Шаблон:Lang (beginners); but a masculine meaning reappears in Шаблон:Lang "a bull & cow", Шаблон:Lang (an Englishman & Englishwoman), Шаблон:Lang (a male & female beginner).

There are several dozen clearly masculine roots:

Words for boys and men: Шаблон:Lang (bachelor – the feminine Шаблон:Lang is used for 'miss'), Шаблон:Lang (boy), Шаблон:Lang (man).

Kinship terms: Шаблон:Lang (grandfather), Шаблон:Lang (husband), Шаблон:Lang (fiance), Шаблон:Lang (son), Шаблон:Lang (brother), Шаблон:Lang (cousin), Шаблон:Lang (grandson), Шаблон:Lang (nephew), Шаблон:Lang (uncle), Шаблон:Lang (father), Шаблон:Lang (widower), but not Шаблон:Lang (orphan) or Шаблон:Lang (relative).

Titles of nobility that have feminine equivalents: Шаблон:Lang (baron), Шаблон:Lang (czar), Шаблон:Lang (count), Шаблон:Lang (knight), Шаблон:Lang (prince), Шаблон:Lang (king), Шаблон:Lang (lord, sir), but not generic Шаблон:Lang (noble) or Шаблон:Lang (monarch). Many non-European titles, such as Шаблон:Lang (shah) and Шаблон:Lang (mikado), are considered masculine because there are no female examples (there is no "ŝahino" or "mikadino"), but like 'pope' above, this is subject to circumstance. For example, though Шаблон:Lang (pharaoh) may be said to be masculine, Hatshepsut is described not only as a Шаблон:Lang but as a female Шаблон:Lang.

Religious orders that have feminine equivalents: Шаблон:Lang (abbot), Шаблон:Lang (monk). Others, such as Шаблон:Lang (rabbi), do not occur in the feminine but, like Шаблон:Lang (pope), that is a matter of custom rather than language.

Male mythological figures: Шаблон:Lang (cyclopes), Шаблон:Lang (leprechaun), etc. These do not take the suffix Шаблон:Lang. There are relatively few mythological terms that can only be masculine. Шаблон:Lang (incubus), for example, is prototypically masculine, but the feminine Шаблон:Lang is found as an alternative to Шаблон:Lang (succubus).

Dedicated masculine words for domestic animals that have a separate epicene root: Шаблон:Lang (buck), Шаблон:Lang (stallion), Шаблон:Lang (bull). These do not take the suffix Шаблон:Lang.

Words for castrated beings: Шаблон:Lang (eunuch), Шаблон:Lang (castrated rooster), Шаблон:Lang (castrated bull). These do not take the suffix Шаблон:Lang.

A word for male: Шаблон:Lang.

Some of these, such as Шаблон:Lang and the dedicated words for male animals, are fundamentally masculine and are never used with the feminine suffix. The others remain masculine mainly because Zamenhof did not establish a way to derive masculine words the way he did for feminine words. To partially remedy this, the root Шаблон:Lang (man) has long been used to form the masculine of animal words. Originally a suffix, since the 1926 publication of the Esperanto translation of the Bible it has shifted in use to a prefix, but either way the resulting words are ambiguous. Шаблон:Lang "bovine-man" and Шаблон:Lang "man-bovine", for example, could mean either "minotaur" or "bull", and therefore both Шаблон:Lang (bull) and Шаблон:Lang (minotaur) have been borrowed into the language to disambiguate. Adjectival usage of Шаблон:Lang is also found, but is similarly ambiguous. More recently, the word Шаблон:Lang (masculine) was created as an unambiguous alternative, while others use the unofficial suffix -iĉo.

Feminine roots

There are several dozen feminine roots that do not normally take the feminine suffix Шаблон:Lang:

Words for women: Шаблон:Lang (lady), Шаблон:Lang (matron), Шаблон:Lang (shrew/bitch, from mythology);

Female professions: Шаблон:Lang (almah), Шаблон:Lang (geisha), Шаблон:Lang (concubine), Шаблон:Lang (prostitute), Шаблон:Lang (odalisque), Шаблон:Lang (prima donna), Шаблон:Lang (soubrette);

Female mythological figures: Шаблон:Lang (Amazon), Шаблон:Lang (Fury), Шаблон:Lang (Muse), Шаблон:Lang (nymph), Шаблон:Lang (siren), etc.

Special words for female domestic animals: Шаблон:Lang (heifer)

Spayed animals: Шаблон:Lang (poulard)

Words for female: Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang.

Like the essentially masculine roots (those that do not take the feminine suffix), feminine roots are rarely interpreted as epicene. However, many of them are feminine because of social custom or the details of their mythology, and there is nothing preventing masculine usage in fiction. Even outside of fiction, words such as Шаблон:Lang (muse) Шаблон:Lang (nymph) may be used metaphorically for males, and a collection of Goethe's poetry has been translated under the title Шаблон:Lang ('The [female] Muse'), with gendered metaphorical usage. Similarly, Шаблон:Lang is also the biological name for sea-cows (Latin Шаблон:Lang), and as such one can speak of Шаблон:Lang (a female sea-cow).

Feminine personal names

The ending of all assimilated nouns in Esperanto with Шаблон:Lang, including personal names, clashes with Romance languages such as Italian and Spanish, in which Шаблон:Lang marks masculine names, and feminine names end in Шаблон:Lang. For example, the fully Esperantized form of 'Mary' is Шаблон:Lang, which resembles Spanish masculine Шаблон:Lang rather than feminine Шаблон:Lang. (Though suffixed Шаблон:Lang is also available, it is seldom seen.) This has resulted in some writers using a final Шаблон:Lang for feminine names with cognates in Romance languages, such as Шаблон:Lang "John" vs. Шаблон:Lang "Joanna", rather than using the feminine suffix Шаблон:Lang for a more fully assimilated Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, or Шаблон:Lang "Joseph" and Шаблон:Lang "Josephine". Some writers extend this Шаблон:Lang convention to all female names, though there is no such gender in Esperanto grammar.

Gendered pronouns

Esperanto personal pronouns distinguish gender in the third-person singular: Шаблон:Lang (he), Шаблон:Lang (she); but not in the plural: Шаблон:Lang (they). There are two practical epicene third-person singular pronouns: expanding the use of the demonstrative pronoun Шаблон:Lang (that one), and Шаблон:Lang (Zamenhof's suggestion).

See the discussions at gender reform in Esperanto.

Antonyms

People sometimes object to using the prefix Шаблон:Lang to derive highly frequent antonyms, especially when they are as long as Шаблон:Lang (far). There are a few alternative roots in poetry, such as Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang (very ugly) and Шаблон:Lang for Шаблон:Lang (lazy) – some of which originated in Ido – that find their way into prose. However, they are rarely used in conversation. This is a combination of two factors: the great ease and familiarity of using the Шаблон:Lang prefix, and the relative obscurity of most of the alternatives, which would hamper communication. This results in English borrowings – such as Шаблон:Lang (cheap) for Шаблон:Lang (inexpensive) – failing to find favor even among native English speakers.

Two root antonyms are frequently encountered: Шаблон:Lang (little), and Шаблон:Lang (hard [not soft]). However, their popularity is due to their iconicity. Шаблон:Lang is derived from the diminutive suffix and more properly means slight, but it's a short word, and its use for Шаблон:Lang (little) is quite common. The reason for the popularity of Шаблон:Lang may be similar: perhaps official Шаблон:Lang, with the repeated continuants m_l, sounds too soft to mean "hard", while Шаблон:Lang begins with a stop consonant. Other antonymic words tend to have a different scope. For example, instead of Шаблон:Lang (bad) we may see Шаблон:Lang (of poor quality) or Шаблон:Lang (shameful), but these are not strict antonyms.

The antonymic prefix is highly productive among native-speaking children.

Proper names

Файл:Akihitum-et-michikam.jpg

The Japanese names "Akihito and Michiko" inflected in Latin as Шаблон:Lang. Final vowels are often similarly changed to the inflectional suffix -o, -on in Esperanto.

Proper names may either be

• translated into Esperanto: Шаблон:Lang "John"
• fully assimilated (respelled in the Esperanto alphabet and given the inflectional suffix -o of nouns). These can then be inflected like normal Esperanto nouns:
  • Шаблон:Lang "Roosevelt"
  • Шаблон:Lang "the Roosevelts"
  • in accusative case: Шаблон:Lang "Now I will describe Roosevelt."
  • changed to another part of speech: Шаблон:Lang "the Roosevelt mansion"
  • combined with other roots and affixes: Шаблон:Lang "descendants of the Roosevelts"
• partially assimilated, i.e. respelled only: Шаблон:Lang "Condoleezza Rice", or
• left in the original orthography: Шаблон:Lang.

The last method is usually used only for names or transliterations of names in Latin script. As noted under Gender, feminine personal names may take the suffix a rather than o even when fully assimilated.

When a name ending in a vowel is fully assimilated, the vowel is often changed to inflectional o, rather than the o being added to the full root. As with borrowed common nouns, this may be criticized if the vowel is part of the root rather than inflectional in the source language, because the resulting form may not be readily recognized by native speakers of the source language. However, it is a common phenomenon in inflectional languages such as Russian or Latin. If a name is not fully assimilated, the accusative case may be tacked on with a hyphen, as -n if the name ends in a vowel, or as -on if it does not (Шаблон:Lang).

Idioms and slang

Some idiomatic expressions have either been borrowed from Esperanto's source languages, or developed naturally over the course of Esperanto's history. There are also various expletives based on body functions and religion, as in English.

Idioms

In addition to the root words and the rules for combining them, a learner of Esperanto must learn some idiomatic compounds that are not entirely straightforward. For example, Шаблон:Lang, literally "to give out", means "to publish"; a Шаблон:Lang, literally "a compilation of words", means "a glossary" or "a dictionary"; and Шаблон:Lang, literally "a place for necessities", is a toilet. Almost all of these compounds, however, are modeled after equivalent compounds in native European languages: Шаблон:Lang after the German herausgeben or Russian Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang from the Russian Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:Lang.

Contractions

Шаблон:Lang (hello) is sometimes clipped to Шаблон:Lang or even Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang) is seen as a quick hello–goodbye on internet chatrooms. Similarly:

Шаблон:Lang (Esperanto)

Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang 'and/or')

Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang 'he/she' and Шаблон:Lang 's/he')

Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang 'is, are, am')

In the contraction Шаблон:Lang the stress shifts to the temporal suffix, which makes the tenses easier to distinguish than they are in formal Шаблон:Lang, and effectively recapturing some of the stress patterns of Proto-Esperanto (see below).

Word play

Sometimes Esperanto derivational morphology is used to create humorous alternatives to existing roots. For instance, with the antonym prefix Шаблон:Lang, one gets,

Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang to drink) to urinate (normally Шаблон:Lang)

Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang to eat) to vomit (normally Шаблон:Lang).

As in English, some slang is intentionally offensive, such as substituting the suffix Шаблон:Lang (a sheath) for the feminine Шаблон:Lang in Шаблон:Lang (a woman), for Шаблон:Lang, meaning a woman as a receptacle for a man. However, such terms are usually coined to translate from English or other languages, and are rarely heard in conversation.

Cultural "in" words

Esperanto has some slang in the sense of in-group talk as well. Some of this is borrowed; for example, Шаблон:Lang (to whistle about something) means not to care about it, as in German. Other expressions deriving from Esperanto history or dealing with specifically Esperantist concerns have arisen over the years. A Шаблон:Lang, for example, is something needlessly incomprehensible, derived from the name of the more complex and less immediately readable constructed language Volapük, which preceded Esperanto by a few years.

Words and phrases reflect what speakers of a language talk about. Tellingly, Esperanto has a slang expression Шаблон:Lang (to crocodile) for speaking a language other than Esperanto when Esperanto would be more appropriate, such as at an Esperanto convention, whereas there is nothing equivalent in English.

Jargon

Technical jargon exists in Esperanto as it does in English, and this is a major source of debate in the language: whether international jargon should be borrowed into Esperanto, or whether more transparent equivalents should be constructed from existing roots.

However, the normal wordplay people use for amusement is occasionally carried to the extreme of being jargon. One such style is called Esperant’, found in chat rooms and occasionally used at Esperanto conventions. (See Esperantido.)

Artificial variants

One line of verse, taken from the sole surviving example of the original Lingwe uniwersala of 1878, is used idiomatically:

Шаблон:Lang (it's time).

If this stage of Esperanto had been preserved, it would presumably be used to occasionally give a novel the archaic flavor that Latin provides in the modern European languages.

Various approaches have been taken to represent deviant language in Esperanto literature. One play, for example, originally written in two dialects of Italian, was translated with Esperanto representing one dialect, and Ido representing the other. Other approaches are to attempt to reconstruct proto-Esperanto, and to create de novo variants of the language.

Reconstructions

With so little data available, various attempts have been made to reconstruct what proto-Esperanto may have been like. However, these reconstructions rely heavily on material from the intermediate period of Esperanto development, between the original Lingwe Uniwersala of 1878 and the Unua Libro of 1887. (See Proto-Esperanto.)

De novo creations

There are various "dialects" and pseudo-historical forms that have been created for literary uses in Esperanto. Two of the more notable are a substandard jargon, Popido, and a fictitious "archaic" version of Esperanto called Arcaicam Esperantom. Neither are used in conversation. (See Esperantido.)

False friends

Because Esperanto vocabulary is largely international, it shares many cognates with English. However, because they were often taken from languages other than English, these do not always have their English meanings. Some of the mismatches are:

Шаблон:Lang (to spare), vs. Шаблон:Lang (to damage)

Шаблон:Lang (to jam, obstruct), vs. Шаблон:Lang (to embarrass)

Шаблон:Lang (current, up-to-date), vs. Шаблон:Lang (actual), vs. Шаблон:Lang (effective)

Шаблон:Lang (contingent), vs. Шаблон:Lang (eventual)

Шаблон:Lang (punctual, on-time), vs. Шаблон:Lang (accurate)

Шаблон:Lang (to check, keep track of), vs. Шаблон:Lang (to control)

Шаблон:Lang (suitable), vs. Шаблон:Lang (convenient)

Шаблон:Lang (dividend income), vs. Шаблон:Lang (rent)

Шаблон:Lang (section), vs. Шаблон:Lang (paragraph)

Dictionaries

Шаблон:Lang (English: The Complete Illustrated Dictionary of Esperanto, abbreviated PIV) is the largest monolingual dictionary of the language and is generally regarded as the standard. (There is a free online version at vortaro.net.) However, it is subject to criticism, for example for failure to distinguish rare, idiosyncratic, redundant, or even erroneous words attested in a few written texts from their conversational equivalents, and for giving French approximations of some difficult words rather than their Zamenhofian meanings. The older Шаблон:Lang, originally published in 1930 and reissued with an appendix in 1953, is still widely used, as more portable and less expensive than the PIV, and perhaps more accurate, even if somewhat dated. The Шаблон:Lang (five volumes, 1989–2001) gives source-language etymologies of all fundamental and official root words (tentative and uncertain in a few cases), along with comparisons of equivalent words in four other constructed international auxiliary languages.

See also

• Esperanto grammar
• Word derivation by native speakers
• Esperanto lexicographers
• Шаблон:Lang
• Special Esperanto adverbs
• Esperanto words with the suffix -um
• Esperanto profanity

External links

• Шаблон:Cite web, a discussion of the Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, and criticism of the latter
• Reta Vortaro, multilingual Esperanto dictionary
• vortaro.net, Шаблон:Lang online