Английская Википедия:Etymologiae
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Cleanup lang Шаблон:Good article
Шаблон:Lang (Latin for 'Etymologies'), also known as the Шаблон:Lang ('Origins'), usually abbreviated Orig., is an etymological encyclopedia compiled by the influential Christian bishop Isidore of Seville (Шаблон:Circa) towards the end of his life. Isidore was encouraged to write the book by his friend Braulio, Bishop of Saragossa. Шаблон:Lang summarized and organized a wealth of knowledge from hundreds of classical sources; three of its books are derived largely from Pliny the Elder's Natural History. Isidore acknowledges Pliny, but not his other principal sources, namely Cassiodorus, Servius, and Gaius Julius Solinus.
Шаблон:Lang covers an encyclopedic range of topics. Etymology, the origins of words, is prominent, but the work also covers, among other things, grammar, rhetoric, mathematics, geometry, music, astronomy, medicine, law, the church and heretical sects, pagan philosophers, languages, cities, humans, animals, the physical world, geography, public buildings, roads, metals, rocks, agriculture, war, ships, clothes, food, and tools.
Шаблон:Lang was a widely used textbook throughout the Middle Ages. It was so popular that it was read in place of many of the original classics that it summarized; as a result, some of these ceased to be copied and were lost. It was cited by Dante Alighieri (who placed Isidore in his Шаблон:Lang), quoted by Geoffrey Chaucer, and mentioned by the poets Boccaccio, Petrarch, and John Gower. Among the thousand-odd surviving manuscript copies is the 13th-century Шаблон:Lang; the earliest surviving manuscript, the Шаблон:Lang, preserves books XI to XX from the 9th century. Шаблон:Lang was printed in at least ten editions between 1472 and 1530, after which its importance faded during the Renaissance. The first scholarly edition was printed in Madrid in 1599; the first modern critical edition was edited by Wallace Lindsay in 1911.
While less well known in modern times, modern scholars recognize the work's importance in preserving both classical texts, as well as insight into the medieval mindset.
Background
Isidore of Seville was born around 560 in Cartagena, which was under the unstable rule of the Visigoths after the collapse of the Roman Empire in the West. His older brother, Leander, the abbot of a Seville monastery, supervised Isidore's education, probably in the school attached to his monastery. Leander was a powerful priest, a friend of Pope Gregory, and eventually he became bishop of Seville. Leander also made friends with the Visigothic king's sons, Hermenigild and Reccared. In 586, Reccared became king, and in 587 he converted to Catholicism under Leander's religious direction, and consequently controlled the appointment of bishops. Reccared died in 601, not long after appointing Isidore as bishop of Seville.
Isidore helped to unify the kingdom through Christianity and education, eradicating the Arian heresy which had been widespread, and led National Councils at Toledo and Seville. Isidore had a close friendship with king Sisebut, who came to the throne in 612, and with another Seville churchman, Braulio, who later became bishop of Saragossa.
Isidore was widely read, mainly in Latin with a little Greek and Hebrew. He was familiar with the works of both the church fathers and pagan writers such as Martial, Cicero and Pliny the Elder, this last the author of the major encyclopaedia then in existence, the Natural History. The classical encyclopedists had already introduced alphabetic ordering of topics, and a literary rather than observational approach to knowledge: Isidore followed those traditions.Шаблон:Sfn Isidore became well known in his lifetime as a scholar. He started to put together the Шаблон:Lang, a collection of his knowledge, in about 600, and continued to write until around 625.Шаблон:Sfn[1]
Overview
The Шаблон:Lang presents an abbreviated form of much of that part of the learning of antiquity that Christians thought worth preserving. Etymologies, often very far-fetched, form the subject of just one of the encyclopedia's twenty books (Book X), but perceived linguistic similarities permeate the work. An idea of the quality of Isidore's etymological knowledge is given by Peter Jones: "Now we know most of his derivations are total nonsense (eg, he derives baculus, 'walking-stick', from Bacchus, god of drink, because you need one to walk straight after sinking a few)".[2]
The work covers many of the subjects of ancient learning, from theology to the construction and provenance of furniture, and provides a rich source of classical lore and learning for medieval writers. Isidore quotes from around 475 works from over 200 authors in his works, including those outside the Шаблон:Lang.Шаблон:Sfn Bishop Braulio, to whom Isidore dedicated it and sent it for correction, divided it into its twenty books.Шаблон:Sfn
An analysis of Book XII by Jacques André identifies 58 quotations from named authors and 293 borrowed but uncited usages: 79 from Solinus; 61 from Servius; 45 from Pliny the Elder. Isidore takes care to name classical and Christian scholars whose material he uses: in descending order of frequency, Aristotle (15 references), Jerome (10 times), Cato (9 times), Plato (8 times), Pliny, Donatus, Eusebius, Augustine, Suetonius, and Josephus. He mentions as prolific authors the pagan Varro and the Christians Origen and Augustine. But his translator Stephen Barney notes as remarkable that he never actually names the compilers of the encyclopedias that he used "at second or third hand",Шаблон:Sfn Aulus Gellius, Nonius Marcellus, Lactantius, Macrobius, and Martianus Capella. Barney further notes as "most striking"Шаблон:Sfn that Isidore never mentions three out of his four principal sources (the one he does name being Pliny): Cassiodorus, Servius and Solinus. Conversely, he names Pythagoras eight times, even though Pythagoras wrote no books. The Шаблон:Lang are thus "complacently derivative".Шаблон:Sfn
In Book II, dealing with dialectic and rhetoric, Isidore is heavily indebted to translations from the Greek by Boethius; in Book III he is similarly in debt to Cassiodorus, who provided the gist of Isidore's treatment of arithmetic. Caelius Aurelianus contributes generously to the part of Book IV dealing with medicine. Isidore's view of Roman law in Book V is viewed through the lens of the Visigothic compendiary called the Breviary of Alaric, which was based on the Code of Theodosius, which Isidore never saw. Through Isidore's condensed paraphrase a third-hand memory of Roman law passed to the Early Middle Ages. Lactantius is the author most extensively quoted in Book XI, concerning man. Books XII, XIII and XIV are largely based on the Natural History and Solinus, whereas the lost Prata of Suetonius, which can be partly pieced together from what is quoted in the Шаблон:Lang, seems to have inspired the general plan of the work, as well as many of its details.Шаблон:Sfn
Isidore's Latin, replete with nonstandard Vulgar Latin, stands at the cusp of Latin and the local Romance language emerging in Hispania.Шаблон:Efn According to the prefatory letters, the work was composed at the urging of Braulio, to whom Isidore sent the unedited manuscript at the end of his life, which seems to have begun circulating before Braulio was able to revise and issue it with a dedication to the late Visigothic king Sisebut.Шаблон:Sfn
Contents
The Etymologies organizes knowledge, mainly drawn from the classics, into twenty books:
| Book | Topics | Principal sources |
|---|---|---|
| (Whole work) | (Etymological encyclopedia) | the Prata of Suetonius, now lostШаблон:Sfn |
| Book I: de grammatica | Trivium: grammar | Institutes of CassiodorusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book II: de rhetorica et dialectica | Trivium: rhetoric and dialectic | CassiodorusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book III: de quatuor disciplinis mathematicis | Quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy | Boethius on mathematics; CassiodorusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book IV: de medicina | medicine | Caelius Aurelianus, Soranus of Ephesus, PlinyШаблон:Sfn |
| Book V: de legibus et temporibus | law and chronology | Institutes of Gaius, Breviary of AlaricШаблон:Sfn |
| Book VI: de libris et officiis ecclesiasticis | Ecclesiastical books and offices | Augustine, Jerome, Gregory the Great, Divine Institutes of Lactantius, TertullianШаблон:Sfn |
| Book VII: de deo, angelis, sanctis et fidelium ordinibus | God, angels and saints hierarchies of heaven and earth | Augustine, Jerome, Gregory the Great, Lactantius, TertullianШаблон:Sfn |
| Book VIII: de ecclesia et sectis diversis | The church, Jews, and heretical sects; pagan philosophers, prophets and sibyls | Augustine, Jerome, Gregory the Great, Lactantius, Tertullian (Christian); Varro, Cicero, Pliny the Elder (pagan)Шаблон:Sfn |
| Book IX: de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus, affinitatibus | Languages, peoples, kingdoms, armies, cities and titles | Augustine, Ambrose, Jerome, Servius, Pliny, Solinus (who borrowed from Pliny)Шаблон:Sfn |
| Book X: de vocabulis | Etymologies | Verrius Flaccus via Festus; Servius; the Church Fathers.Шаблон:Sfn |
| Book XI: de homine et portentis | Mankind, portents, and transformations | Books XI – XX all include material from Pliny's Natural History, Servius, Solinus |
| Book XII: de animalibus | Beasts and birds | Pliny, Servius, Solinus, Hexameron of AmbroseШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XIII: de mundo et partibus | The physical world, atoms, elements, natural phenomena | as Book XIШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XIV: de terra et partibus | Geography: Earth, Asia, Europe, Libya, islands, promontories, mountains, caves | as Book XI; Histories Against the Pagans of Paulus OrosiusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XV: de aedificiis et agris | Public buildings, public works, roads | Columella, ServiusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XVI: de lapidibus et metallis | Metals and stones | Pliny, Servius, SolinusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XVII: de rebus rusticis | Agriculture | Cato via Columella, Pliny, Servius, Solinus, Rutilius Palladius, VarroШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XVIII: de bello et ludis | Terms of war, games, jurisprudence | Servius; Tertullian on circus gamesШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XIX: de navibus, aedificiis et vestibus | Ships, houses, and clothes | Servius; also Jerome, Festus, Pliny, Marcus Cetius Faventinus, Palladius, Nonus MarcellusШаблон:Sfn |
| Book XX: de penu et instrumentis domesticis et rusticis | Food, tools, and furnishings | as Book XIXШаблон:Sfn |
In Book I, Isidore begins with a lengthy section on grammar, the first of three subjects in the mediaeval Trivium considered at the time the core of essential knowledge. He covers the letters of the alphabet, parts of speech, accents, punctuation and other marks, shorthand and abbreviations, writing in cipher and sign language, types of mistake and histories.Шаблон:Sfn He derives the word for letters (littera) from the Latin words for "to read" (legere) and 'road' (iter), "as if the term were legitera",Шаблон:Sfn arguing that letters offer a road for people who read.Шаблон:Sfn
Book II completes the medieval Trivium with coverage of rhetoric and dialectic. Isidore describes what rhetoric is, kinds of argument, maxims, elocution, ways of speaking, and figures of speech. On dialectic, he discusses philosophy, syllogisms, and definitions. He equates the Greek term syllogism with the Latin term argumentation (argumentatio), which he derives from the Latin for "clear mind" (arguta mens).Шаблон:Sfn
Book III covers the medieval Quadrivium, the four subjects that supplemented the Trivium being arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.Шаблон:Efn He argues that there are infinitely many numbers, as you can always add one (or any other number) to whatever number you think is the limit.Шаблон:Sfn He attributes geometry to Ancient Egypt, arguing that because the River Nile flooded and covered the land with mud, geometry was needed to mark out people's land "with lines and measures".Шаблон:Sfn Isidore distinguishes astronomy from astrology and covers the world, the sky and the celestial sphere, the zodiac, the Sun, Moon, stars, Milky Way, and planets, and the names of the stars. He derives the curved (curvus) vault of the heavens from the Latin word for "upside-down" (conversus). He explains eclipses of the Sun as the Moon coming between the Earth and the Sun and eclipses of the Moon as happening when it runs into the shadow of the Earth. He condemns the Roman naming of the planets after their gods: Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Venus, and Mercury.Шаблон:Sfn Isidore of Seiville distinguished between a 'Superstitious' astrology (Шаблон:Lang) from a 'natural' astrology. The first deals with the horoscope and the attempt of foreseeing the future of one or more persons; the latter was a legitimate activity which had concerns with meteorological predictions, including iatromathematics and astrological medicine.[3]
Book IV covers medicine, including the four humours, diseases, remedies and medical instruments. He derives the word medicine from the Latin for "moderation" (modus), and "sciatica" (sciasis) from the affected part of the body, the hip (Greek ἰσχία "ischia").Шаблон:Sfn
Book V covers law and chronology. Isidore distinguishes natural, civil, international, military and public law among others. He discusses the purpose of law, legal cases, witnesses, offences and penalties. On chronology, Isidore covers periods of time such as days, weeks, and months, solstices and equinoxes, seasons, special years such as Olympiads and Jubilees, generations and ages.Шаблон:Sfn
In Book VI, Isidore describes ecclesiastical books and offices starting with the Old and New Testaments, the authors and names of the holy books, libraries and translators, authors, writing materials including tablets, papyrus and parchment, books, scribes, and Christian festivals.Шаблон:Sfn
Book VII describes the basic scheme concerning God, angels, and saints: in other words, the hierarchies of heaven and earth from patriarchs, prophets and apostles down the scale through people named in the gospels to martyrs, clergymen, monks and ordinary Christians.Шаблон:Sfn
Book VIII covers religion in the shape of the Christian church, the Jews and heretical sects, pagan philosophers including poets, sibyls and magi, and the pagan gods.Шаблон:Sfn
Book IX covers languages, peoples, kingdoms, cities and titles.Шаблон:Sfn
Book X is a word-list of nouns and adjectives, together with supposed etymologies for them. For example, the letter 'D' begins with the word for master (Dominus), as he is the head of a household (Domus); the adjective docile (docilis) is derived by Isidore from the verb for "to teach" (docere), because docile people are able to learn; and the word for abominable (Nefarius) is explained as being not worth the grain called spelt (far).Шаблон:Sfn
Book XI covers human beings, portents and transformations. Isidore derives human beings (homo) from the Latin for soil (humus), as in Genesis 2:7 it says that man is made from the soil. Urine (urina) gets its name either from the fact that it can burn (urere) the skin or, Isidore hedges, that it is from the kidneys (renes). Femina, meaning woman, comes from femora/femina meaning thighs, as this part of the body shows she is not a man. The Latin for buttocks is clunis as they are near the large intestine or colon (colum).Шаблон:Sfn
Book XII covers animals, including small animals, snakes, worms, fish, birds and other beasts that fly. Isidore's treatment is as usual full of conjectural etymology, so a horse is called Шаблон:Lang because when in a team of four horses they are balanced (aequare). The spider (aranea) is so called from the air (aer) that feeds it. The electric ray (torpedo) is called that because it numbs (Шаблон:Lang, compare English "torpid") anyone who touches it.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XIII describes the physical world, atoms, classical elements, the sky, clouds, thunder and lightning, rainbows, winds, and waters including the sea, the Mediterranean, bays, tides, lakes, rivers and floods. The sky is called Шаблон:Lang, as it has stars stamped on to it, like a decorated pot (Шаблон:Lang). Clouds are called Шаблон:Lang as they veil (Шаблон:Lang) the sky, just as brides (Шаблон:Lang) wear veils for their weddings. The wind is called Шаблон:Lang, as it is angry and violent (Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang).Шаблон:Sfn There are many kinds of water: some water "is salty, some alkaline, some with alum, some sulfuric, some tarry, and some containing a cure for illnesses."Шаблон:Sfn There are waters that cure eye injuries, or make voices melodious, or cause madness, or cure infertility. The water of the Styx causes immediate death.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XIV covers geography, describing the Earth, islands, promontories, mountains and caves. The Earth is divided into three parts, Asia occupying half the globe, and Europe and Africa each occupying a quarter. Europe is separated from Africa by the Mediterranean, reaching in from the Ocean that flows all around the land.Шаблон:Sfn Isidore writes that the orbis of the Earth, translated by Barney as "globe", "derives its name from the roundness of the circle, because it resembles a wheel; hence a small wheel is called a 'small disk' (orbiculus)".Шаблон:Sfn Barney notes that orbis "refers to the 'circle' of lands around the Mediterranean, and hence to the total known extent of land."Шаблон:Sfn Isidore illustrated the Etymologies with a circular T-O map[4] which also gave a vague impression of a flat disc-shaped Earth, though authors disagree about Isidore's beliefs on the matter.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn[5]
Book XV covers cities and buildings including public buildings, houses, storehouses and workshops, parts of buildings, tents, fields and roads.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XVI covers metals and rocks, starting with dust and earth, and moving on to gemstones of different colours, glass and mines. Metals include gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and electrum. Weights and measures end the book. Games with boards and dice are described.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XVII describes agriculture, including grains, legumes, vines, trees, aromatic herbs and vegetables.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XVIII covers the terms of war, games, and jurisprudence. Isidore describes standards, trumpets, weapons including swords, spears, arrows, slings, battering rams, and armour including shields, breastplates and helmets. Athletic games include running and jumping, throwing and wrestling. Circus games are described, with chariot racing, horse racing and vaulting. In the theatre, comedy, tragedy, mime and dance are covered. In the amphitheatre, Isidore covers those who fight with nets, nooses and other weapons.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XIX covers ships including boats, sails, ropes and nets; forges and tools; building, including walls, decorations, ceilings, mosaics, statues, and building tools; and clothes, including types of dress, cloaks, bedding, tools, rings, belts and shoes. The word "net" (rete), is derived from retaining (retinere) fish, or perhaps, writes Isidore, from the ropes (restis) they are attached to.Шаблон:Sfn
Book XX completes Isidore's encyclopaedia, describing food and drink and vessels for these, storage and cooking vessels; furnishings including beds and chairs; vehicles, farm and garden tools and equipment for horses.Шаблон:Sfn
Reception
Middle Ages
Isidore was widely influential throughout the Middle Ages, feeding directly into word lists and encyclopaedias by Papias, Huguccio, Bartholomaeus Anglicus and Vincent of Beauvais, as well as being used everywhere in the form of small snippets.Шаблон:Sfn His influence also pertained to early medieval riddle collections such as the Bern Riddles or the Шаблон:Lang of Aldhelm. He was cited by Dante Alighieri, quoted by Geoffrey Chaucer, and his name was mentioned by the poets Boccaccio, Petrarch and John Gower among others. Dante went so far as to place Isidore in Paradise in the final part of his Divine Comedy, Paradiso (10.130–131).Шаблон:Sfn
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Шаблон:Lang was the textbook most in use, regarded so highly as a repository of classical learning that, in a great measure, it superseded the use of the individual works of the classics themselves, full texts of which were no longer copied and thus were lost. It was one of the most popular compendia in medieval libraries.Шаблон:Sfn
Modern
"An editor's enthusiasm is soon chilled by the discovery that Isidore's book is really a mosaic of pieces borrowed from previous writers, sacred and profane, often their 'ipsa verba' without alteration," Wallace Lindsay noted in 1911, having recently edited Isidore for the Clarendon Press,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn with the further observation, however, that a portion of the texts quoted have otherwise been lost: the Шаблон:Lang of Suetonius, for instance, can only be reconstructed from Isidore's excerpts.Шаблон:Sfn
In the view of John T. Hamilton, writing in The Classical Tradition in 2010, "Our knowledge of ancient and early medieval thought owes an enormous amount to this encyclopedia, a reflective catalogue of received wisdom, which the authors of the only complete translation into English introduce as "arguably the most influential book, after the Bible, in the learned world of the Latin West for nearly a thousand years"Шаблон:Sfn These days, of course, Isidore and his Etymologies are anything but household names... but the Vatican has named Isidore the patron saint of the Internet, which is likely to make his work slightly better known.[6]
Ralph Hexter, also writing in The Classical Tradition, comments on "Isidore's largest and massively influential work... on which he was still at work at the time of his death... his own architecture for the whole is relatively clear (if somewhat arbitrary)... At the deepest level Isidore's encyclopedia is rooted in the dream that language can capture the universe and that if we but parse it correctly, it can lead us to the proper understanding of God's creation. His word derivations are not based on principles of historical linguistics but follow their own logic... Isidore is the master of bricolage... His reductions and compilations did indeed transmit ancient learning, but Isidore, who often relied on scholia and earlier compilations, is often simplistic scientifically and philosophically, especially compared to .. figures such as Ambrose and Augustine."Шаблон:Sfn
Writing in The Daily Telegraph, Peter Jones compares Шаблон:Lang to the Internet: Шаблон:Blockquote
Manuscripts and printed editions
Almost 1000 manuscript copies of Шаблон:Lang have survived. The earliest is held at the Abbey library of Saint Gall in Switzerland,Шаблон:Sfn a 9th-century copy of Books XI to XX forming part of the Шаблон:Lang.[7] The 13th-century Шаблон:Lang held in the National Library of Sweden, the largest extant medieval manuscript, contains a copy of the Шаблон:Lang.[8]
In 1472 at Augsburg, the Шаблон:Lang became one of the first books to be printed, quickly followed by ten more editions by 1500.Шаблон:Sfn Juan de Grial produced the first scholarly edition in Madrid in 1599.Шаблон:Sfn Faustino Arevalo included it as two of the 17 volumes of his Шаблон:Lang in Rome (1797–1803).Шаблон:Sfn Rudolph Beer produced a facsimile edition of the Toledo manuscript of the Шаблон:Lang in 1909.Шаблон:Sfn Wallace Lindsay edited the first modern critical edition in 1911.Шаблон:Sfn Jacques Fontaine and Manuel C. Diaz y Diaz have between 1981 and 1995 supervised the production of the first five volumes of the Шаблон:Lang in the Belle Lettres series "Auteurs Latins du Moyen Age", with extensive footnotes.Шаблон:Sfn
Notes
References
Bibliography
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Fear, A. T., and Jamie Wood, eds. Isidore of Seville and His Reception in the Early Middle Ages: Transmitting and Transforming Knowledge. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2016.
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite journal
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite book
- Шаблон:Cite journal
External links
- Summary of contents in English (starts on page 57)
- Codex Guelferbytanus 64 Weissenburgensis (Herzog August Bibliothek)
- Scholia in Isidori Etymologias Vallicelliana
- Latin texts
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite wikisource
- ↑ Ошибка цитирования Неверный тег
<ref>; для сносокJonesTelegraphне указан текст - ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Woodward, David. "Reality, Symbolism, Time, and Space in Medieval World Maps", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 1985, p. 517-519.
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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