Английская Википедия:Eugène Hénard
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Eugène Alfred Hénard (22 October 1849 – 19 February 1923) was a French architect and a highly influential urban planner. He was a pioneer of roundabouts, which were first introduced in Paris in 1907.
Hénard advocated several major urban projects in Paris, including great radial roads linking the center to a new ring road, and the expansion of the Place de l'Opéra. He was also a strong supporter of increased green space in cities. He proposed an innovative "stepped boulevard" arrangement, where buildings would be set at an angle to the line of the street, thus maximizing light into the apartments. His futuristic visions strongly influenced later architects, notably Le Corbusier.
Life
Early years
Eugène Hénard was born in 1849. His father, Antoine-Julien Hénard, was a professor of architecture at the École des Beaux-Arts, known as the "architect of the 12th" for his work in the 12th arrondissement of Paris. Eugène Hénard studied architecture under his father at the École des Beaux-Arts. He proved to be an able student and won several prizes.Шаблон:Sfn Eugène Hénard did not win the Grand Prix de Rome, but qualified as an architect in 1880.Шаблон:Sfn In 1882 Hénard obtained a position with the Travaux de Paris, the office of public works, remaining with this department for his working life. At first his main responsibility was the design of school buildings.Шаблон:Sfn
Engineer and architect
During the planning for the Exposition Universelle (1889) Hénard proposed installing an innovative continuous train system to move visitors around, reducing fatigue and improving flow. The continuous train, or moving sidewalk, would have been powered by electricity.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn His design had a series of 320 wagons forming a continuous loop with a length of Шаблон:Convert. They would run through the exposition on rails in a trench. Each wagon would be covered with a wooden floor at ground level, and would move relatively slowly. Young and agile passengers could jump on or off at any point. The train would frequently come to a halt for the convenience of women, children and older passengers.Шаблон:Sfn
The moving sidewalk project was rejected, but Hénard was assigned as a sub-inspector to help oversee construction of the huge Palais des Machines.Шаблон:Sfn He was one of the assistants of Ferdinand Dutert, who designed the building.Шаблон:Sfn The largest vaulted building at the time was St Pancras railway station, built in London in 1868, with a span of Шаблон:Convert and height of Шаблон:Convert. The Palais des Machines had a span of Шаблон:Convert and height of Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Talking of the structure, Hénard said it successfully combined aesthetic appearance with engineering function. The two goals were complementary.Шаблон:Sfn The pavilion was reused for the 1900 exposition, but was dismantled in 1910 despite Hénard plea to preserve it as an architectural monument.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
In 1889 Hénard became a member of the prestigious Societé Centrale des Architectes, and was confirmed as sub-inspector of the municipality of Paris.Шаблон:Sfn In 1896 Hénard was named assistant director of architectural services to the Exposition Universelle (1900), and in 1897 was detached from his responsibilities to the city.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard designed the Palace of Electricity for the exposition, at the end of the Champ de Mars facing the Eiffel Tower. This iron and glass pavilion was the highlight of the Exposition, and also provided power to all the other pavilions.Шаблон:Sfn Edmond Paulin created the huge water tower that served as its facade, an extraordinary structure including a huge waterfall and crowned by a statue of the Genius of Electricity over Шаблон:Convert high.Шаблон:Sfn
Hénard also designed the Hall of Illusions, a hexagonal structure with a Moorish appearance where the interior walls were covered in mirrors.Шаблон:Sfn The giant kaleidoscope created for this hall is now preserved in the Passage Jouffroy.Шаблон:Sfn For his work on the 1900 exposition Hénard received a gold medal in architecture and was made a knight of the Legion of Honour.Шаблон:Sfn
Urban planner
In 1901 Hénard returned to working for the city as an inspector. In 1907 he was appointed architect of the 8th section of the city, comprising the 9th and 17th arrondissements.Шаблон:Sfn Between 1901 and 1913 he was responsible for various public works projects in these arrondissements. He directed the commission on Monumental Perspectives from 1910 to 1911, and was made a member of the Council of Civil Buildings.Шаблон:Sfn
Hénard also worked with various organizations concerned with health, philanthropy or professional services as an expert on urban planning considerations.Шаблон:Sfn In 1908 he headed one of two committees of the Musee Social. His committee was responsible for identifying urban and rural hygiene problems and proposing solutions, while the other committee was to draft legislation and find legal methods for implementing his group's proposals.Шаблон:Sfn In November 1911 Henri Prost was assigned to assist him, since he was in poor health. Prost went on to have a distinguished career in urban planning.Шаблон:Sfn In 1913 Hénard was one of the founders of the French society of urban architects, which would become the Société française des urbanistes (SFU).Шаблон:Sfn Hénard was the first president.Шаблон:Sfn
Hénard called for a law that would require urban planning for all cities in France with more than 10,000 people.Шаблон:Sfn He became internationally recognized for the series of articles on aspects of urban plans for Paris that he published between 1903 and 1908, including plans to use the former fortifications land for parks and a ring road around Paris, the grande Ceínture.Шаблон:Sfn The sixth paper, issued in March 1905, discussed the growth of automobile traffic and the need for radial arteries. The seventh, issued in May 1906, discussed intersections such as roundabouts.Шаблон:Sfn Among other innovations he proposed in his Études sur les transformations de Paris were multi-level crossroads, train tracks and metro lines and elevators.Шаблон:Sfn
Hénard was preoccupied with finding solutions to the growing traffic problem in Paris, and devoted much of his career to this subject.Шаблон:Sfn He prepared many studies and plans for improving the road system in Paris while preserving important buildings and monuments.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard wanted to develop better radial thoroughfares, and to take the opportunity presented by demolition of the old city fortifications to build a ring road and new parks and housing.Шаблон:Sfn The new housing units would have a staggered arrangement so as to maximize the light received by each apartment and to create more recreational space. He received strong support from organizations such as the Musée Social, and from other urban planners, but was opposed by real estate investors who feared the impact of his planned 75,000 apartment units. After World War I (1914–1918) most of the fortifications area that was to be used for his projects was instead sold in independent parcels to various developers.Шаблон:Sfn
Eugène Hénard died in 1923.Шаблон:Sfn
Innovations
Statistical study of traffic flow
By 1906 there was estimated to be 65,543 vehicles on the streets of Paris.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard was a pioneer in traffic studies, breaking down counts of vehicles by type (e.g. household, professional, commercial, etc.) and deriving traffic statistics for each type as the day progressed. Hénard compared Paris to London, Berlin and Moscow, cities that had fewer traffic problems, and concluded that the reason was that the other cities had radial arteries connected to ring roads, which Paris lacked.Шаблон:Sfn His diagrams of major cities in Europe where their patterns of radial and ring roads were emphasized were used to support urban plans in the United States, such as those prepared for San Francisco and Chicago by Daniel Burnham.Шаблон:Sfn
Improved intersections
Hénard proposed various solutions to the problem of efficient traffic flow through road intersections, including a form of cloverleaf interchange.Шаблон:Sfn In 1905 Hénard proposed the rule that at busy intersections the vehicles on the right had the right of way. Experiments with this rule were started in 1907, and it was included in the first official traffic regulations published in 1912. The rule stands today. He designed a split-level intersection, in which pedestrians were separated from traffic.Шаблон:Sfn
Traffic circles, often with a civic monument in the center, have a long history. Until the growing traffic volume of the twentieth century forced the issue, there was no standard rule for moving round them. In 1897 Holroyd Smith in London proposed a "gyratory" traffic flow, with traffic going round the circle in a defined direction. Hénard proposed the same in Paris in 1903.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard called them carrefours à girations.Шаблон:Sfn The first test of the concept was with New York's Columbus Circle, completed in 1905. In 1907 the concept was introduced in Paris in the Place de l'Étoile and Place de la Nation.Шаблон:Sfn Roundabouts were introduced in Britain and Germany soon after, and became more common in those countries than in France.Шаблон:Sfn
Stepped housing
In urban planning, Eugène Hénard was attached to the idea of combining solutions to practical requirements, particularly those arising from the development of motoring, with aesthetic objectives. He said, "It is unfortunate that on the pretext of hygiene and good administration, we forget our past as an artistic people; it is unacceptable that we cannot in our turn create new forms in which, without sacrificing the conditions of scientific progress, the approval of the people and the aspects of beauty also have their share."Шаблон:Sfn
In the traditional view of sanitation inherited by Baron Haussmann, it was thought that wide, straight tree-lined boulevards cutting through the city would reduce the danger of epidemics by letting healthy air circulate freely.Шаблон:Sfn After the discovery of bacteria, there was no longer seen to be a need for uniform, flat facades along streets to maximize air circulation, although fresh air, sunlight and good sewers were still important.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard said that for a public road to provide all the services that heavy traffic is entitled to require, it is necessary that the paved road is properly aligned and that its width is uniform, but this does not imply rigorous alignment of buildings.Шаблон:Sfn
Hénard therefore proposed to replace the monotonous lines of house facades and trees parallel to the road with a "stepped boulevard" (boulevard à redans).Шаблон:Sfn In one version, the fronts of the buildings would be at angles to the road and to each other, creating triangular spaces in which trees could be planted.Шаблон:Sfn In an alternate arrangement, blocks of trees would alternate with apartment blocks along the road, with the apartment blocks connected further back from the road, thus creating a series of square green spaces along the boulevard.Шаблон:Sfn The stepped arrangement would provide a greater amount of light and would provide space for small green spaces between the road and the buildings, or for shops and cafes.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard considered that the result would give greater freedom to architects.Шаблон:Sfn These concepts influenced the pattern of the linear superblocks in Le Corbusier's famous 1922 Ville Contemporaine proposal.Шаблон:Sfn
City of the Future
Hénard presented a paper at a conference in 1910 in London on the "City of the Future" that gave a visionary, futurist outline of a high-technology designed city in which the use of private aircraft was widespread.Шаблон:Sfn Although they were Utopian at the time, many (but not all) of his suggestions later turned into reality.Шаблон:Sfn His streets included conduits for gas, electricity, compressed air, drinking water, pneumatic tubes for letters, telephone lines and so on. There were bathrooms with hot and cold water on every floor.Шаблон:Sfn Vacuum powered wall conduits would remove smoky or polluted air from the apartments. Garbage would be thrown down tubes into bins below grade, and service carts would carry it away on rails below the street.Шаблон:Sfn
Hénard was the first to propose the concept of an artificial ground level, which influenced later urban architects such as Auguste Perret and Le Corbusier.Шаблон:Sfn He envisioned a "service road" running below the road used by the residents of his magnificent buildings, with their elevators, roof gardens and rooftop helicopter landing pads.Шаблон:EfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Concepts presented in Le Corbusier's 1915 work on "Pilotis-Cities", where buildings would stand on stilts to increase the space available for traffic flow, derive from Hénard's 1910 work.Шаблон:Sfn However, Hénard presented his innovations within the framework of the contemporary Parisian fin-de-siècle decorative style, while Le Corbusier thought a new urban form would better meet the needs of the new age.Шаблон:Sfn
Paris urban plans
Major thoroughfares
Anticipating growing volumes of traffic, Hénard was in favor of a network of ring roads around the city center linked by arterial roads crossing the city.Шаблон:Sfn He presented a project for a nouvelle grande-croisée Est-Ouest de Paris ("new major east-west crossing of Paris") in 1904.Шаблон:Sfn In his plan, two broad avenues would intersect at right-angles at the Palais-Royal, dividing Paris into four districts.Шаблон:Sfn They would join in a roundabout, cutting into the west side of the Palais-Royal.Шаблон:Sfn
The east-west artery, the new Avenue du Palais-Royal, would run along the route of the Rue Rambuteau, which would be expanded, through the Palais-Royal and into the Avenue de l'Opéra.Шаблон:Sfn The avenue would pass through arches cut through the wings of the Palais Royal similar to the arches in Hector Lefuel's wing of the Louvre.Шаблон:Sfn The avenue du Palais-Royal would be Шаблон:Convert wide. It would intersect the north-south Rue de Richelieu, enlarged to Шаблон:Convert in width and renamed the Avenue de Richelieu. Both avenues would be extended to the gates of Paris and would make the best possible use of existing roads. Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Efn
Eugene Hénard also proposed to unite the Palais-Royal with the Banque de France headquarters by removing the Rue Radziwill. The Banque de France building on the new Avenue du Palais Royal would be given "a facade worthy of the first financial institution in France".Шаблон:Sfn For Eugene Hénard, the general circulation of Paris would have benefited from the creation of the new Avenue du Palais-Royal as a "sort of aorta artery placed at the heart of the city, and by its powerful pulsations regularizing the central movement."Шаблон:Sfn
The project also included:Шаблон:Sfn
- Removing the narrow Valois, Montpensier and Beaujolais streets,
- Moving the Fontaine Molière at the corner of the Avenue de l'Opera and the new Richelieu Avenue, just opposite the Comédie-Française,
- Replacing the four passages of the Louvre beside Rue de Rivoli and building in their place a new gate of the Louvre, wider and similar to that originally planned by Lefuel,
- Creating a star junction with six branches at the meeting point of the new Avenue du Palais Royal and the Avenue de l'Opera.
For Eugène Hénard, the assembly formed by the arch through the Palais-Royal, the star junction, the square of the Comédie-Française with its fountains and the triumphal arch of the Louvre would create a group of sites in the center of Paris where monumental art would provide additional and undeniable beauty to the city. The entire project was discussed for several years, and in 1912 gave rise to great controversy within the Commission of Old Paris.Шаблон:Sfn However, the proposal did not gain official support.Шаблон:Sfn
Place de l'Opera
Eugène Hénard pointed out that the squares before the 19th century had a larger area than those that succeeded them, even though traffic problems did not then exist: Шаблон:Convert for the Place Royale, Шаблон:Convert for the Place Vendome, Шаблон:Convert for the Place de la Concorde, while the Place Saint-Michel is Шаблон:Convert, the Place de l'Opéra Шаблон:Convert and the Place de la Republique Шаблон:Convert.Шаблон:Sfn Eugène Hénard advocated creation of new squares and also the expansion of existing squares such as the Place de l'Opéra.Шаблон:Sfn
For the Place de l'Opéra he added aesthetic considerations to concerns over the problem of motor traffic and motoring, regretting that it was impossible to see the main facade of the Opera building as a whole.Шаблон:Sfn He, therefore, proposed to double the width of the square and give it an almost circular form, slightly oval: the oval would be Шаблон:Convert. This eccentricity would be small enough not to slow down the circular movement by bends with too narrow a radius. In the middle of the square, a large circular funnel Шаблон:Convert in diameter would provide light and air to radiating underground pedestrian galleries and the Metropolitan station. Access to the underground passages and the station would be via two central stairs and seven stairs around the perimeter.Шаблон:Sfn
Looking north from the square there would be three views: along the Rue de la Paix to the column of the Grand Army, along the Avenue de l'Opéra, with the distant dome of one of the pavilions of the Louvre, and along the rue du 4-Septembre, with a more confused appearance. Hénard proposed to balance the perspectives by adding two columns the same height as the Vendôme column, one in the axis of the Avenue de l'Opera, the other in the rue du 4-September. He proposed to erect a column to the glory of arts topped with a statue of Victor Hugo, and another to the glory of science dedicated to Louis Pasteur.Шаблон:Sfn The Arts column would be on the axis of the Avenue de l'Opera, which leads to the Théâtre-Français and the Louvre. The Sciences column would be on the axis of the rue du 4-September leading to the National Library and the Conservatory of Arts and Crafts.Шаблон:Sfn
New parks
Eugène Hénard observed that Paris had a denser population but much less green space than London, with Шаблон:Convert for Paris compared to Шаблон:Convert for London.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Since 1789 Paris had lost more than half of its planted areas: Шаблон:Convert in 1789 compared to Шаблон:Convert in 1903.Шаблон:Sfn He especially regretted that the park of Bagnolet which gave the northeast quarters a garden equivalent, if not superior to that of the Tuileries had disappeared, as well as the Clichy garden, Montrouge park and the enclosure of Saint-Lazare which could have formed a high-quality interior park".Шаблон:Sfn
In 1903 Hénard proposed using the land reserved for the obsolete Paris fortifications as the basis for a belt of parks. This was supported by the Musée Social, which in 1910 asked citizens to vote in the forthcoming elections for candidates who backed the parkland and urban conservation programs.Шаблон:Sfn Hénard campaigned forcibly to establish "spaces planted with trees, covered with grass and decorated with flowers with a surface at least equal to that of Parc Montsouris".Шаблон:Sfn He proposed to create nine major parks and thirteen playing fields around the borders of the city.Шаблон:Sfn With sizes that varied from Шаблон:Convert, the new parks were to be Levallois, Batignolles, Clignancourt, la Villette, Pré-Saint-Gervais, Charonne, Ivry, Vaugiard and Issy.
Eugène Hénard also proposed the creation of nine additional parks to decongest some areas lacking green spaces: Montmartre park including part of the hill, Saint-Denis park in the 10th arrondissement, Voltaire park in the 11th arrondissement, Ménilmontant park in the 20th arrondissement, Saint-Antoine park in the 12th arrondissement, Maison-Blanche and Croulebarbe parks in the 13th arrondissement, Maine and Grenelle parks in the 15th arrondissement.Шаблон:Sfn These parks would be smaller than the first group, but would not be less than Шаблон:Convert in area.
The purpose of the project was to ensure that every person was at most Шаблон:Convert from a large park and Шаблон:Convert from a garden or square. In Hénard's view the requirements of public health, including the health and development of children, the development of cycling and gymnastics justified the financial commitment necessary to achieve such a program.Шаблон:Sfn Eugène Hénard stated that in the areas dedicated to sports, the cafes and restaurants that wanted to establish themselves would generate revenue that help cover the costs of developing and operating the parks.Шаблон:Sfn Many later planners drew on Hénard's 1912 plan for the city of Paris, with its great increase of open space.Шаблон:Sfn
Notes
References
Sources
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Further reading
External links
- The Palais des Machines of 1889. Historical - structural reflections Paper written by Isaac López César & Javier Estévez Cimadevila about the structure of The Galerie des Machines
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