Английская Википедия:Exercise Strikeback

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Exercise Strikeback aka Operation Strikeback was a major naval exercise of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) that took place over a ten-day period in September 1957.

As part of a series of exercises to simulate an all-out Soviet attack on NATO, Exercise Strikeback was tasked with two objectives. Its initial objective was the deployment of NATO's naval forces (designated the "Blue Fleet") against other NATO forces attempting to simulate an "enemy" navy that featured a large number of submarines (designated the "Orange Fleet"). Its other objective was to have the Blue Fleet execute carrier-based air strikes against "enemy" formations and emplacements along NATO's northern flank in Norway.

Exercise Strikeback involved over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 75,000 personnel from the United States Navy, the Royal Navy, the Royal Canadian Navy, the French Navy, the Royal Netherlands Navy, and the Royal Norwegian Navy. As the largest peacetime naval operation up to that time, military reporter Hanson W. Baldwin of The New York Times said Exercise Strikeback gathered "the strongest striking fleet assembled since World War II."[1]

Strikeback and the other concurrent NATO exercises held during the fall of 1957 would be the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.[2][3]

Background

Strategic overview

Faced with the overwhelming numerical superiority of Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact military forces, NATO embraced the concept of the nuclear umbrella to protect Western Europe from a Soviet ground invasion.[4][5][6][7] This strategy was initially articulated in January 1954 by U.S. Army General and then-Supreme Allied Commander Europe Alfred Gruenther: Шаблон:Quote

This strategic concept reflected the American strategy of massive retaliation of the Eisenhower administration as set forth by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles:

Шаблон:Quote

NATO military command structure

Файл:NATO Commands 1954.jpg
NATO military command and areas of responsibilities (1954)

With the establishment of NATO's Allied Command Atlantic (ACLANT) on 30 January 1952, the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT) joined the previously-created Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) as one of the alliance's two principal parts of the NATO Military Command Structure.[8] In addition, Allied Command Channel was established on 21 February 1952 to control the English Channel and North Sea area and deny it to the enemy, protect the sea lanes of communication, and Support operations conducted by SACEUR and SACLANT.[9][10] The following key NATO military commands were involved in a series of alliance-wide exercises, including Operation Strikeback, during the Fall of 1957.[11][12]

Operational history

As part of the response to a theoretical Soviet attack against NATO on all fronts, Operation Strikeback would test the capabilities of Allied naval forces (Blue Fleet) by tasking them to destroy the enemy navy (Orange Fleet) and its huge submarine fleet, protect transatlantic shipping, and undertake sustained carrier-based air strikes against the enemy positions.[13]

Beginning on 3 September 1957, American and Canadian naval forces got underway to join British, French, Dutch, and Norwegian naval forces in eastern Atlantic and northern European waters under the overall command of Vice Admiral Robert B. Pirie, United States Navy, Commander, United States Second Fleet, acting as NATO's Commander Striking Fleet Atlantic.[14] While en route, the U.S.-Canadian naval forces executed Operation Seaspray, a bilateral naval exercise to protect Blue Fleet's vitally-important underway replenishment group (URG) from enemy submarine attacks.[15] The nuclear submarine Шаблон:USS and the conventional submarine Шаблон:USS completed operations in the Arctic and joined 34 other U.S. and allied submarines temporarily assigned to the Orange Fleet.[16] USS Mount McKinley was based in Portsmouth Naval Base as the command communications base for the Orange forces controlling Comsuborangelant/Comphiborangelant for the duration of the Exercise.

Operation Strikeback itself began on 19 September 1957, involving over 200 warships, 650 aircraft, and 65,000 personnel. To provide a more realistic simulation of protecting transatlantic shipping, over 200 merchant marine vessels, including the ocean liners Шаблон:RMS and Шаблон:SS, also participated as duly-flagged target ships for the exercise.[16] Blue Fleet hunter-killer (HUK) groups centered around the carriers Шаблон:USS, Шаблон:USS, and Шаблон:USS, as well as submarines and land-based anti-submarine patrol aircraft, executed Operation Fend Off/Operation Fishplay to identify, track, and contain the breakout of the enemy Orange Fleet's submarine force along the Greenland-Iceland-UK gap (GIUK gap").[17][18]

Operating above the Arctic Circle in the Norwegian Sea, the Blue Fleet, which included the new aircraft carriers Шаблон:USS and Шаблон:USS, launched carried-based air strikes against enemy positions in Norway. Time magazine provided the following contemporary coverage of Operation Strikeback:

Шаблон:Quote

Файл:USS Nautilus SSN-571 -underway.jpg
USS Nautilus
Файл:USS Valley Forge (CVS-45) underway with Task Group Alfa, in 1959 (USN 1043094).jpg
U.S. Navy ASW Task Force Alfa (1959)

Following the conclusion of Operation Strikeback, U.S. naval forces conducted Operation Pipedown, involving the protection of its underway replenishment group while en route back the United States.[19]

SACLANT Admiral Jerauld Wright, United States Navy, described Operation Strikeback as being "remarkably successful" while also noting "[that] there is considerable scarcity of both naval and air forces in the eastern Atlantic."[20] Wright's Eastern Atlantic allied commander, Vice Admiral Sir John Eccles, RN, also noted:

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Particularly significant was the performance of nuclear-powered submarines with the U.S. Navy's first two such vessels, the Шаблон:USS and Шаблон:USS, participating in Operation Strikeback. According to naval analyst-historian Norman Friedman, Nautilus "presented a greater threat than all 21 snorkel submarines combined" during Operation Strikeback, making 16 successful attacks against various naval formations while maintaining effective on-station tactical and high-speed pursuit capabilities. Nautilus cruised 3,384 nautical miles (6,267 km) with an average speed of 14.4 knots (26.7 km/h).[21] In addition to the Nautilus, the Seawolf departed New London on 3 September for Operation Strikeback. Before she surfaced off Newport, Rhode Island, on 25 September, Seawolf had remained submerged for 16 days, cruising a total of 6,331 miles (10,189 km). Recognizing the need to meet this Anti-submarine warfare (ASW) challenge, the following actions were taken:

  • Task Force Alfa was created by the U.S. Navy to develop improved ASW tactics and technology by integrating carrier-based ASW aircraft, land-based patrol aircraft, refitted destroyers, and hunter-killer submarines.[22][23][24]
  • NATO Undersea Research Centre was established by SACLANT on 2 May 1959 in La Spezia, Italy, to serve as a clearinghouse for NATO's anti-submarine efforts.[25][26]

Operation Strikeback was the final deployment for the battleships Шаблон:USS and Шаблон:USS until their re-activation in the 1980s by the Reagan Administration. Finally, on the technical level, Operation Strikeback saw the first use of single sideband (SSB) voice communications for tactical operations by the United States Navy,[27] and Шаблон:HMS was the first Royal Navy carrier to use a magnetic loop communication system.[28]

In addition to Operation Strikeback, which concentrated on its eastern Atlantic/northern European flank, NATO also conducted two other major military exercises in September 1957, Operation Counter Punch involving Allied Forces Central Europe on the European mainland and Operation Deep Water involving NATO's southern flank in the Mediterranean Sea.[3][29]

Naval forces

The following is a partial listing of naval forces known to have participated in Operation Strikeback.

Aircraft carriers and embarked air groups

Naval aircraft

United States Navy:

Royal Navy

Aircraft losses

Forrestalcrash
Forrestalcrash

Surface warships

Battleships:

Cruisers:

Destroyers:

Destroyer escorts:

Amphibious vessels:

Royal Canadian Navy destroyers

Submarine forces

Nuclear submarines:

Support vessels:

Diesel-electric submarines:

Naval auxiliaries

Underway Replenishment Group (URG):

Fleet Support:

Land-based ASW patrol aircraft

U.S. Navy Fleet Air Wing 3

The United States Navy deployed two patrol squadron from Fleet Air Wing Three (FAW-3) to participate in Operation Strikeback:

Both squadrons flew Lockheed P2V-5F Neptune ASW patrol aircraft.

RAF Coastal Command

The Royal Air Force assigned two squadrons from RAF Coastal Command to participate in Operation Strikeback. Both squadrons flew Avro Shackleton patrol bombers:

U.S. Marine Corps units

The following units of the United States Marine Corps participated in Operation Strikeback in September 1957 are listed below.[39]

See also

Шаблон:Commons category

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

References


Bibliography

Шаблон:DANFS

External links

Шаблон:NATO Шаблон:Cold War

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Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Cite magazine
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book, hereafter referred to as Warrior among Diplomats.
  13. ↑ Warrior among Diplomats. p. 333 - 334
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite DANFS
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book, hereafter referred to as USS Wasp
  16. ↑ 16,0 16,1 Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:Dead link
  17. ↑ USS Wasp, p. 118
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  19. ↑ USS Wasp, p. 119
  20. ↑ Warrior among Diplomats, p. 334
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  22. ↑ Шаблон:Cite journal
  23. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  24. ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
  25. ↑ Warrior among Diplomats, p. 357
  26. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  27. ↑ Chronological History – U.S. Naval Communications, p. 16
  28. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  29. ↑ Шаблон:Cite magazine
  30. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  31. ↑ Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:Dead linkШаблон:Cbignore
  32. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  33. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  34. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  35. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  36. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  37. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  38. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  39. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
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