Английская Википедия:Führer

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:About Шаблон:About Шаблон:Italic title Шаблон:Lang (Шаблон:IPAc-en Шаблон:Respell; Шаблон:IPA-de, spelled Шаблон:Lang when the umlaut is unavailable) is a German word meaning "leader" or "guide". As a political title, it is strongly associated with Adolf Hitler, the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. Hitler officially styled himself der Führer und Reichskanzler (the Leader and Chancellor of the Reich) after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg in 1934 and the subsequent merging of the offices of Reichspräsident and Reichskanzler.

Nazi Germany cultivated the Шаблон:Lang ("leader principle"), and Hitler was generally known as simply Шаблон:Lang ("the Leader").[1]

In compound words, the use of Шаблон:Lang remains common in German and is used in words such as Шаблон:Lang (mountain guide) or Шаблон:Lang (leader of the opposition). However, because of its strong association with Hitler, the isolated word itself usually has negative connotations when used with the meaning of "leader", especially in political contexts.

The word Шаблон:Lang has cognates in the Scandinavian languages, spelled fører in Danish and Norwegian. In Norwegian the word has the same meaning as the German word, but without necessarily having political connotations.Шаблон:Citation needed In Swedish and Danish, förare and fører normally means "driver" (of a vehicle). However, in the compound word härförare and hærfører, that part does mean "leader", and is a cognate of the German "Heerführer".[2]

History

Background

Шаблон:Lang has been used as a military title (compare Latin Dux) in Germany since at least the 18th century. The usage of the term "Führer" in the context of a company-sized military subunit in the German Army referred to a commander lacking the qualifications for permanent command. For example, the commanding officer of a company was (and is) titled "Kompaniechef" (literally, Company Chief), but if he did not have the requisite rank or experience, or was only temporarily assigned to command, he was officially titled "Kompanieführer". Thus operational commands of various military echelons were typically referred to by their formation title followed by the title Шаблон:Lang, in connection with mission-type tactics used by the German military forces. The term Шаблон:Lang was also used at lower levels, regardless of experience or rank; for example, a Шаблон:Lang was the leader of a squad of infantry (9 or 10 men).

Origins of the political concept

The first example of the political use of Шаблон:Lang was with the Austrian Georg von Schönerer (1842–1921), a major exponent of pan-Germanism and German nationalism in Austria, whose followers commonly referred to him as the Шаблон:Lang, and who also used the Roman salute – where the right arm and hand are held rigidly outstretched – which they called the "German greeting".[3] According to historian Richard J. Evans, this use of "Шаблон:Lang" by Schönerer's Pan-German Association, probably introduced the term to the German far-right, but its specific adoption by the Nazis may also have been influenced by the use in Italy of "Шаблон:Lang", also meaning "leader", as an informal title for Benito Mussolini, the Fascist Prime Minister, and later (from 1922) dictator, of that country.[4]

Шаблон:Lang of the Nazi Party

Adolf Hitler took the title to denote his function as the head of the Nazi Party; he received it in 1921 when, infuriated over party founder Anton Drexler's plan to merge with another antisemitic far-right nationalist party, he resigned from the party. Drexler and the party's Executive Committee then acquiesced to Hitler's demand to be made the chairman of the party with "dictatorial powers" as the condition for his return.[5]

Шаблон:Lang and Chancellor

Шаблон:Infobox official post Шаблон:Nazism sidebar

In 1933, Hitler was appointed Шаблон:Lang (Chancellor of the Reich) by Шаблон:Lang Paul von Hindenburg.

A month later, the decision to vote with the Nazi Party taken by the MPs of the Catholic Center Party allowed the Nazi-dominated Reichstag to reach the qualified constitutional two-thirds majority required for passage of the Enabling Act allowing the cabinet to promulgate laws by decree, rendering in practice the system of checks and balances defunct. The Act became the official legal justification for such decrees later routinely issued by Hitler himself.

Шаблон:Lang and Chancellor of the German Reich

One day before Hindenburg's death, Hitler and his cabinet decreed the "Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich", which stipulated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of the president was to be merged with that of Chancellor.[6][7] Thus, upon Hindenburg's death, Hitler became Шаблон:Lang – although eventually Шаблон:Lang was quietly dropped from day-to-day usage and retained only in official documents.[8] Hitler therefore assumed the President's powers without assuming the office itself – ostensibly out of respect for Hindenburg's achievements as a heroic figure in World War I. The Enabling Act had specifically prohibited legislation that would affect the position or powers of the Reich President, but the first one-party Reichstag elected in November 1933 had passed an act on the first anniversary of Hitler's appointment as Chancellor, 30 January 1934, abolishing those restrictions. It was then approved by a referendum on 19 August.[9][10][11]

Шаблон:Lang and Chancellor of the Greater German Reich

The title was changed on 28 July 1942 to "Шаблон:Lang" (Leader and Chancellor of the Greater German Reich).[12]

Шаблон:Lang and Supreme Commander of the Wehrmacht

Шаблон:Further According to the Constitution of Weimar, the President was Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. Unlike "President", Hitler did take this title (Шаблон:Lang) for himself. When conscription was reintroduced in 1935, Hitler created the title of Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, a post held by the Minister for War. He retained the title of Supreme Commander for himself. Soldiers had to swear allegiance to Hitler as "Шаблон:Lang" (Leader of the German Reich and Nation). Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, then the Minister of War and one of those who created the Hitler oath, or the personal oath of loyalty of the military to Hitler, became the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces while Hitler remained Supreme Commander. Following the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair in 1938, Hitler assumed the commander-in-chief's post as well and took personal command of the armed forces. However, he continued using the older formally higher title of Supreme Commander, which was thus filled with a somewhat new meaning. Combining it with "Führer", he used the style Шаблон:Lang (Leader and Supreme Commander of the Шаблон:Lang), yet a simple "Führer" after May 1942.

Шаблон:Lang of the German Reich and Nation

Soldiers had to swear allegiance to Hitler as "Шаблон:Lang" (Leader of the German Reich and Nation).[13] In his political testament, Hitler also referred to himself as Шаблон:Lang (Leader of the Nation).[14]

Germanic Führer

Шаблон:Further An additional title was adopted by Hitler on 23 June 1941 when he declared himself the "Germanic Führer" (Шаблон:Lang), in addition to his duties as Führer of the German state and people.[15] This was done to emphasize Hitler's professed leadership of what the Nazis described as the "Nordic-Germanic master race", which was considered to include peoples such as the Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, and others in addition to the Germans, and the intent to annex these countries to the German Reich to form the Greater Germanic Reich (Шаблон:Lang). Waffen-SS formations from these countries had to declare obedience to Hitler by addressing him in this fashion.[16] On 12 December 1941 the Dutch fascist Anton Mussert also addressed him as such when he proclaimed his allegiance to Hitler during a visit to the Reich Chancellery in Berlin.[12] He had wanted to address Hitler as Шаблон:Lang ("Führer of all Germanics"), but Hitler personally decreed the former style.[12] Historian Loe de Jong speculates on the difference between the two: Шаблон:Lang implied a position separate from Hitler's role as Шаблон:Lang ("Führer and Reich Chancellor of the Greater German Reich"), while Шаблон:Lang served more as an attribute of that main function.[12] As late as 1944, however, occasional propaganda publications continued to refer to him by this unofficial title.[17]

Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Further One of the Nazis' most-repeated political slogans was Шаблон:Lang – "One People, One Empire, One Leader". American historian Шаблон:Ill says the slogan "left an indelible mark on the minds of most Germans who lived through the Nazi years. It appeared on countless posters and in publications; it was heard constantly in radio broadcasts and speeches." The slogan emphasized the absolute control of the leader over practically every sector of German society and culture – with the churches being formally the most notable exception.[13] The designation Шаблон:Lang itself was initially used only in the context of the Nazi Party, though its meaning gradually sprawled to cover the German state, the German Armed Forces, the German nation and ultimately all the Germanic peoples.

Hitler's word became in practice absolute and ultimate, even when incompatible the Constitution, as he saw himself as the sole source of power in Germany, similar to the Roman emperors and German early medieval leaders.[18] In spite of that, he took great care to maintain the pretence of legality of his dictatorship. He issued thousands of decrees that were based explicitly on the Reichstag Fire Decree. That decree itself was based on Article 48 of the constitution, which gave the president the power to take measures deemed necessary to protect public order. The Enabling Act was renewed in 1937 for four years and again in 1939 for four years by the Reichstag. In 1943, it was extended indefinitely by a decree from Hitler himself. Those extensions by the Reichstag were merely a formality with all other parties having been banned.

However, Hitler had a narrow range of interest – mostly involving diplomacy and the military – and so his subordinates interpreted his vaguely formulated orders and wishes in a manner beneficial to their own interests or those of their organizations.[13] This led to vicious power wrangles that were immensely beneficial to Hitler in aiding him to ensure that no subordinate amassed enough power to challenge or jeopardize his absolute rule.

Usage in lower ranks of Nazi Germany

Regional Nazi Party leaders were called Шаблон:Lang, "Шаблон:Lang" also meaning "leader". Almost every Nazi paramilitary organization, in particular the SS and SA, had Nazi party paramilitary ranks incorporating the title of Шаблон:Lang. The SS including the Waffen-SS, like all paramilitary Nazi organizations, called all their members of any rank except the lowest one a Шаблон:Lang of something; thus confusingly, Шаблон:Lang was also an official rank title for a specific grade of general. The word Шаблон:Lang was also a generic word referring to any commander or leader of troops and could be applied to NCOs or officers at many different levels of command. Under the Nazis, the title Шаблон:Lang was also used in paramilitary titles (see Freikorps). Within the Party's paramilitary organizations, the Шаблон:Lang (SA) and its later much more powerful offshoot, the Шаблон:Lang (SS), "Шаблон:Lang" was the root word used in the names of their officer ranks, such as in Шаблон:Lang, meaning "assault unit leader", equivalent to major, or Шаблон:Lang, "senior leader", equivalent to senior colonel/brigadier.

Modern German usage

Файл:Führerstand 411.jpg
The word Шаблон:Lang translates to "driver's cab"

In Germany, the isolated word "Шаблон:Lang" is usually avoided in political contexts, due to its intimate connection with Nazi institutions and with Hitler personally. However, the suffix Шаблон:Lang is used in many compound words. Examples include Шаблон:Lang (mountain guide), Шаблон:Lang (human tourist guide), Шаблон:Lang (manager), Шаблон:Lang (travel guidebook), Шаблон:Lang (team captain — also referred to as Шаблон:Lang), and Шаблон:Lang (command duty officer/officer of the watch).

When used in the context of vehicles and traffic, it is often interchangeable with the suffix Шаблон:Lang (vehicle driver): Шаблон:Lang (road vehicle driver), Шаблон:Lang (train driver), Шаблон:Lang (skipper); however, it is worth noticing the exception of the pair Шаблон:Lang (car driver) and Шаблон:Lang (road guidebook). It may also be used in this context as a prefix such as in Шаблон:Lang (driver's license), Шаблон:Lang (train cabin) or Шаблон:Lang (truck cabin).

Since German is a language with grammatical gender, Шаблон:Lang refers to a male leader; the feminine form is Шаблон:Lang.

The use of alternative terms like "Шаблон:Lang" (a borrowing from the French, as is the English "chief", e.g. Шаблон:Lang) or Шаблон:Lang (often in compound words like Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang) is usually not the result of replacing of the word "Führer", but rather using terminology that existed before the Nazis. The use of Шаблон:Lang to refer to a political party leader is rare today and Шаблон:Lang (chairman) is the more common term. However, the word Шаблон:Lang ("leader of the [parliamentary] opposition") is more commonly used.Шаблон:Clear left

See also

Шаблон:Portal Шаблон:Col-beginШаблон:Col-break Terms derived from Шаблон:Lang

Шаблон:Col-break  

Шаблон:Col-break Other

Шаблон:Col-break  

Шаблон:Col-end

References

Шаблон:Reflist

External links

Шаблон:Adolf Hitler Шаблон:NSDAP Шаблон:Nazism Шаблон:Authority control

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  3. ↑ Mitchell, Arthur H. (2007). Hitler's Mountain: The Führer, Obersalzberg, and the American Occupation of Berchtesgaden. Macfarland, p. 15
  4. ↑ Evans, Richard J. (2003) The Coming of the Third Reich. New York; Penguin. pp. 43, 184. Шаблон:Isbn. Schönerer also invented the "pseudo-medieval" greeting "Heil", meaning "Hail".
  5. ↑ Evans, Richard J. (2003) The Coming of the Third Reich. New York; Penguin. p. 180. Шаблон:Isbn
  6. ↑ Gesetz über das Staatsoberhaupt des Deutschen Reichs, 1 August 1934:
    "§ 1 The office of the Reichspräsident is merged with that of the Reichskanzler. Therefore the previous rights of the Reichspräsident pass over to the Führer and Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler. He names his deputy."
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  8. ↑ Richard J. Evans (2005) The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin Books. p. 44. Шаблон:Isbn
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 12,2 12,3 De Jong 1974, pp. 199–200.
  13. ↑ 13,0 13,1 13,2 Шаблон:Cite book
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  15. ↑ De Jong, Louis (1974) (in Dutch). Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de tweede wereldoorlog: Maart '41 – Juli '42, p. 181. M. Nijhoff.
  16. ↑ Bramstedt, E. K. (2003). Dictatorship and Political Police: the Technique of Control by Fear, pp. 92–93. Routledge.
  17. ↑ Adolf Hitler: Führer aller Germanen Шаблон:Webarchive. Storm, 1944.
  18. ↑ Schmidt, Rainer F. (2002) Die Aussenpolitik des Dritten Reiches 1933–1939 Klett-Cotta
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