Английская Википедия:Final-obstruent devoicing

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:More footnotes Шаблон:Sound change Шаблон:IPA notice Final-obstruent devoicing or terminal devoicing is a systematic phonological process occurring in languages such as Catalan, German, Dutch, Quebec French, Breton, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, Turkish, and Wolof. In such languages, voiced obstruents in final position (at the end of a word) become voiceless before voiceless consonants and in pausa. The process can be written as *C_[+voice] → C_[-voice]/__#.

Languages with final-obstruent devoicing

Germanic languages

Most modern continental West Germanic languages developed final devoicing, the earliest evidence appearing in Old Dutch around the 9th or 10th century.

• Afrikaans
• Central Franconian (Luxembourgish and Ripuarian)
• Dutch, also Old and Middle Dutch
• (High) German, also Middle High German
• Gothic (for fricatives)
• Limburgish
• Low German, also Middle Low German
• Old English (for fricatives, inconsistently for Шаблон:IPA)
• West Frisian. In contrast, North Frisian (and some Low German dialects in North Frisia influenced by it) do not have final devoicing.

In contrast to other continental West Germanic languages, (Eastern)-Yiddish notably does not alter final voiced sounds; this appears to be a later reversal, most probably under Slavic influence. In its earliest recorded example (Yiddish, written evidence), it has final-obstruent devoicing (טַק "tak" instead of "tag" for day.)

Of the North Germanic languages, Norwegian and Swedish do not have final devoicing, whereas Danish does not even have voiced obstruents that could be devoiced. As in Danish, Icelandic stops are voiceless, but it has voiced fricatives which may also occur word-finally.

Gothic (an East Germanic language) also developed final devoicing independently.

Romance languages

Among the Romance languages, word-final devoicing is common in the Gallo-Romance languages, some of which tend to exhibit strong Frankish influence (itself the ancestor of Old Dutch, above).

• Catalan
• Old French and Middle French (preserved in certain Modern French inflections such as Шаблон:Lang vs. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang when applying liaison Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, but now often grammaticalized)
  • Meridional French
• Friulian
• Lombard
• Occitan
• Romansh
• Walloon

Notes:

• Standard French (by final schwa losses, see above for notes) and Romanian do not have productive synchronic final devoicing, but varieties of French with substrates of Occitan, Catalan and Québécois (and other final devoicing languages) do have it.
• Other Romance languages such as Italian rarely have words with final voiced consonants for different reasons in their phonological histories, but borrowings from English into Italian that have a voiced final consonant (such as weekend) are not devoiced.
• Portuguese merges Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in word-final position (Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are homophones) but has a few words ending with voiced stops like Шаблон:Lang (although some dialects feature an epenthetic vowel after the final consonant).

Slavic languages

Most Slavic languages exhibit final devoicing, but notably standard (Štokavian) Serbo-Croatian and Ukrainian do not.

• Belarusian
• Bulgarian
• Czech
• Macedonian
• Polish
• Russian
• Rusyn
• Serbo-Croatian (Kajkavian dialects)
• Slovak
• Slovene
• Sorbian

Other Indo-European languages

• Albanian – certain dialects, notably the dialects of certain areas of the Berati and Korça counties
• Arbëresh
• Breton
• Latgalian
• Lithuanian
• Yaghnobi

Non-Indo-European languages

• Azerbaijani (half-voiced in Iranian Azerbaijan, but unexplained in Azerbaijan properШаблон:Clarify)
• Georgian (for stops)
• Indonesian (for stops)
• Kalmyk (for stops)
• Khmer
• Korean (nuanced; see Korean phonology)
• Livonian (fully devoiced or half-voiced)
• Lao
• Malaysian (for stops)
• Maltese
• Modern Javanese (for stops)
• MongolianШаблон:Citation needed
• Thai
• Tok Pisin
• Turkish (for stops, partially)

Notes:

• Hungarian, a Uralic language which lies geographically between Germanic- and Slavic- speaking areas, does not have it.

Examples

Dutch and Afrikaans

In Dutch and Afrikaans, terminal devoicing results in homophones such as Шаблон:Lang 'hard' and Шаблон:Lang 'heart' as well as differences in consonant sounds between the singular and plural forms of nouns, for example Шаблон:Lang (Dutch) and Шаблон:Lang (Afrikaans) for 'wave–waves'.

The history of the devoicing phenomenon within the West Germanic languages is not entirely clear, but the discovery of a runic inscription from the early fifth century suggests that this terminal devoicing originated in Frankish. Of the old West Germanic languages, Old Dutch, a descendant of Frankish, is the earliest to show any kind of devoicing, and final devoicing also occurred in Frankish-influenced Old French.

Amelands, spoken on the Wadden Sea island of Ameland, is the only Dutch dialect that does not feature final-obstruent devoicing.

English

Standard varieties of English do not have phonological final-obstruent devoicing of the type that neutralizes phonemic contrasts; thus pairs like bad and bat are distinct in all major accents of English. Nevertheless, voiced obstruents are devoiced to some extent in final position in English, especially when phrase-final or when followed by a voiceless consonant (for example, bad cat Шаблон:IPA). Additionally, the voiced alveolar stop /d/ is regularly devoiced in African-American Vernacular English (AAVE).

Old English had final devoicing of Шаблон:IPA, although the spelling did not distinguish Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. It can be inferred from the modern pronunciation of half with a voiceless Шаблон:IPA, from an originally voiced fricative Шаблон:IPA in Proto-Germanic Шаблон:Wikt-lang (preserved in German Шаблон:Lang and Gothic Шаблон:Lang). There was also final devoicing of Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA finally, evidenced by spellings like Шаблон:Lang alongside Шаблон:Lang.

German

Final-obstruents devoicing occurs in the varieties from Northern Germany.Шаблон:Sfn The German contrast between homorganic obstruents is more properly described as a fortis and lenis opposition than an opposition of voiceless and voiced sounds. Therefore, the term devoicing may be misleading, since voice is only an optional feature of German lenis obstruents. By contrast, the German term for the phenomenon, Auslautverhärtung ("final-sound hardening"), refers to fortition rather than devoicing. However, the German phenomenon is similar to the final devoicing in other languages in that the opposition between two different kinds of obstruents disappears at the ends of words, and in fact at the ends of all syllables, making homophones of such pairs as Шаблон:Lang ("wheel") and Шаблон:Lang ("council, counsel"), both pronounced Шаблон:IPA. The German varieties of the north, and many pronunciations of Standard German, involve voice in the distinction between fortis and lenis obstruents however. Final devoicing applies to all plosives and fricatives, and to loan words as well as native words.

Some examples from Northern German include:

Nouns/adjective			Verbs
Singular	Translation	Plural	Imperative	Translation	Infinitive
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	bath	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	talk!	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	robbery	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	rub!	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	train	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	say!	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	archive	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	mouse	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	read!	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	orange (adj./n.)	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA	manage!	Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA

Russian

Final-obstruent devoicing can lead to the neutralization of phonemic contrasts in certain environments. For example, Russian Шаблон:Lang ('demon', phonemically Шаблон:IPA) and Шаблон:Lang ('without', phonemically Шаблон:IPA) are pronounced identically in isolation as Шаблон:IPA.

The presence of this process in Russian is also the source of the seemingly variant transliterations of Russian names into -off (Russian: Шаблон:Lang), especially by the French, as well as older English transcriptions.

Devoicing in compounds

In compounds, the behaviour varies between languages:

• In some languages, devoicing is lexicalized, which means that words that are devoiced in isolation retain that final devoicing when they are part of a compound. In English, for example, there is an alternation between voiced and voiceless fricatives in pairs such as the following:
  • thief ([f]) – thieve ([v])
  • bath ([θ]) – bathe ([ð])

The process is not productive in English, however; see article Consonant voicing and devoicing.

• In other languages, it is purely phonological, which means that voicing depends solely on position and on assimilation with adjacent consonants. Example: German.

References

• Шаблон:Cite book
• Brockhaus, Wiebke. (1995). Final Devoicing in the Phonology of German. Max Niemeyer.
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite journal
• Шаблон:Cite CiteSeerX
• Crowley, Terry & Bowern Claire. (2010). An Introduction to Historical Linguistics (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Шаблон:ISBN

See also

• Consonant voicing and devoicing
• Lenition
• Surface filter

External links

• Final Devoicing or 'Why does <naoi> sound like <naoich>?' – explanation of devoicing with regard to Scottish Gaelic
• Final Devoicing – extract (with illustrative audio clips) from Peter Ladefoged's A Course in Phonetics
• Final Devoicing Шаблон:Webarchive – from The Talking Map | Tips for pronunciation