Английская Википедия:Finnish phonology

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Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Self-reference Шаблон:More citations needed Шаблон:IPA notice Unless otherwise noted, statements in this article refer to Standard Finnish, which is based on the dialect spoken in the former Häme Province in central south Finland.[1] Standard Finnish is used by professional speakers, such as reporters and news presenters on television.

Vowels

Файл:Finnish monophthongs chart.svg
Finnish vowel chart, from Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
Finnish monophthong phonemes[2]
Front Back
unrounded rounded
Close Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Mid Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Open Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link

Finnish has a phonological contrast between single (Шаблон:IPA) and double (Шаблон:IPA) vowels.[6] Phonetically long vowels are single continuous sounds (Шаблон:IPA) where the extra duration of the hold phase of the vowel signals that they count as two successive vowel phonemes rather than one. Long mid vowels are more common in unstressed syllables.[7]

Diphthongs

The table below lists the conventionally postulated diphthongs in Finnish. In speech (i.e. phonetically speaking) a diphthong does not sound like a sequence of two different vowels; instead, the sound of the first vowel gradually glides into the sound of the second one with full vocalization lasting through the whole sound. That is to say, the two portions of the diphthong are not broken by a pause or stress pattern. In Finnish, diphthongs are considered phonemic units, contrasting with both long vowel and short vowels. Phonologically, however, Finnish diphthongs usually are analyzed as sequences (this in contrast to languages like English, where the diphthongs are best analyzed as independent phonemes).

Diphthongs ending in Шаблон:Lang can occur in any syllable, but those ending in rounded vowels usually occur only in initial syllables, and rising diphthongs are confined to that syllable. It is usually taught that diphthongization occurs only with the combinations listed. However, there are recognized situations in which other vowel pairs diphthongize. For example, in rapid speech the word Шаблон:Lang ('upper part', from Шаблон:Lang, 'upper' + Шаблон:Lang, 'part') can be pronounced Шаблон:IPA (with the diphthong Шаблон:IPA). The usual pronunciation is Шаблон:IPA (with those vowels belonging to separate syllables).

Diphthongs Ending with Шаблон:IPA Ending with Шаблон:IPA Ending with Шаблон:IPA Opening diphthongs
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA
Starting with Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:Angbr Шаблон:IPA

The diphthongs Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are quite rare and mostly found in derivative words, where a derivational affix starting with Шаблон:IPA (or properly the vowel harmonic archiphoneme Шаблон:IPA) fuses with the preceding vowel, e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'darkness' from Шаблон:Lang 'dark' + Шаблон:IPA '-ness' and Шаблон:Lang 'to tidy up oneself' from Шаблон:Lang 'tidy' + Шаблон:IPA (a kind of middle voice) + Шаблон:IPA (infinitive suffix). Older Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in initial syllables have been shifted to Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.

Opening diphthongs are in standard Finnish only found in root-initial syllables like in words Шаблон:Lang 'to know', Шаблон:Lang 'rear wheel' (from Шаблон:Lang 'back, rear' + Шаблон:Lang 'wheel'; the latter part is secondarily stressed) or Шаблон:Lang 'towards'. This might make them easier to pronounce as true opening diphthongs Шаблон:IPA (in some accents even wider opening Шаблон:IPAШаблон:Efn) and not as centering diphthongs Шаблон:IPA, which are more common in the world's languages. The opening diphthongs come from earlier doubled mid vowels: Шаблон:IPA. Since that time new doubled mid vowels have come to the language from various sources.

Among the phonological processes operating in Finnish dialects are diphthongization and diphthong reduction. For example, Savo Finnish has the phonemic contrast of Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA instead of standard language contrast of Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA vs. Шаблон:IPA.

Vowel harmony

Файл:Finnish vowel harmony Venn diagram.svg
A diagram illustrating the vowel groups in Finnish.

Finnish, like many other Uralic languages, has the phenomenon called vowel harmony, which restricts the cooccurrence in a word of vowels belonging to different articulatory subgroups. Vowels within a word "harmonize" to be either all front or all back.[8] In particular, no native noncompound word can contain vowels from the group {a, o, u} together with vowels from the group {ä, ö, y}. Vowel harmony affects inflectional suffixes and derivational suffixes, which have two forms, one for use with back vowels, and the other with front vowels. Compare, for example, the following pair of abstract nouns: Шаблон:Lang 'government' (from Шаблон:Lang, 'to reign') versus Шаблон:Lang 'health' (from Шаблон:Lang, healthy).

There are exceptions to the constraint of vowel harmony. For one, there are two front vowels that lack back counterparts: Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA. Therefore, words like Шаблон:Lang 'clock' (with a front vowel in a non-final syllable) and Шаблон:Lang 'wind' (with a front vowel in the final syllable), which contain Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA together with a back vowel, count as back vowel words; Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are effectively neutral in regard to vowel harmony in such words.[9] Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang yield the inflectional forms Шаблон:Lang 'in a clock' and Шаблон:Lang 'in a wind'. In words containing only neutral vowels, front vowel harmony is used, e.g. Шаблон:Lang – Шаблон:Lang ('road' – 'on the road'). For another, compound words do not have vowel harmony across the compound boundary;[10] e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'wall clock' (from Шаблон:Lang, 'wall' and Шаблон:Lang, 'clock') has back Шаблон:IPA cooccurring with front Шаблон:IPA. In the case of compound words, the choice between back and front suffix alternants is determined by the immediately-preceding element of the compound; e.g. 'in a wall clock' is Шаблон:Lang, not Шаблон:Lang.

A particular exception appears in a standard Finnish word, Шаблон:Lang ('this kind of'). Although by definition a singular word, it was originally a compound word that transitioned over time to a more compact and easier form: Шаблон:Lang (from Шаблон:Lang, 'of this' and Шаблон:Lang, 'kind') → Шаблон:Lang → Шаблон:Lang, and further to Шаблон:Lang for some non-standard speech.

New loan words may exhibit vowel disharmony; for example, Шаблон:Lang ('Olympic games') and Шаблон:Lang ('secondary') have both front and back vowels. In standard Finnish, these words are pronounced as they are spelled, but many speakers apply vowel harmony – Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang.

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Finnish
Labial Dental,
Alveolar 		Postalveolar,
Palatal 		Velar Glottal
Nasal Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Plosive Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Fricative Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Approximant Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link Шаблон:IPA link
Trill Шаблон:IPA link

Шаблон:IPAblink does not appear in native words, but is reliably distinguished by Finnish speakers. Other foreign fricatives are not. Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPAblink appears only in non-native words, sometimes pronounced Шаблон:IPAblink, although most speakers make a distinction between e.g. Шаблон:Lang 'chess' and Шаблон:Lang 'a gang (of people)'.Шаблон:Citation needed The orthography also includes the letters Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, although their use is marginal, and they have no phonemic status. For example, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang may be pronounced Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA without fear of confusion. The letter Шаблон:Lang, found mostly in foreign words and names such as Zulu, may also be pronounced as Шаблон:IPAblink following the influence of German, thus Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.

Voiced plosives

Шаблон:Further Traditionally, Шаблон:IPAslink and Шаблон:IPAslink were not counted as Finnish phonemes, since they appear only in loanwords. However, these borrowings being relatively common, they are nowadays considered part of the educated norm. The failure to use them correctly is often ridiculed in the media,Шаблон:Citation needed e.g. if a news reporter or a high official consistently and publicly realises Шаблон:Lang ('Belgium') as Шаблон:Lang. Even many educated speakers, however, still make no distinction between voiced and voiceless plosives in regular speech if there is no fear of confusion.Шаблон:Citation needed Minimal pairs do exist: Шаблон:IPA 'a bus' vs. Шаблон:IPA 'a bag', Шаблон:IPA 'a gorilla' vs. Шаблон:IPA 'on a basket'.

The status of Шаблон:IPAslink is somewhat different from Шаблон:IPAslink and Шаблон:IPA, since it also appears in native Finnish words, as a regular 'weak' correspondence of the voiceless Шаблон:IPAslink (see Consonant gradation below). Historically, this sound was a fricative, Шаблон:IPAblink, varyingly spelled as Шаблон:Lang or Шаблон:Lang in Old Literary Finnish. Its realization as a plosive originated as a spelling pronunciation, in part because when mass elementary education was instituted in Finland, the spelling Шаблон:Lang in Finnish texts was mispronounced as a plosive, under the influence of how Swedish speakers would pronounce this letter.[15] (In the close to seven centuries during which Finland was under first Swedish, then Russian rule, Swedish speakers dominated the government and economy.) Initially, few native speakers of Finnish acquired the foreign plosive realisation of the native phoneme. As for loanwords, Шаблон:IPA was often assimilated to Шаблон:IPA. Even well into the 20th century it was not entirely exceptional to hear loanwords like Шаблон:Lang ('a deodorant') pronounced as Шаблон:Lang, while native Finnish words with a Шаблон:IPA were pronounced in the usual dialectal way. Due to diffusion of the standard language through mass media and basic education, and due to the dialectal prestige of the capital area, the plosive Шаблон:IPA can now be heard in all parts of the country, at least in loanwords and in formal speech.

Consonant gradation

Шаблон:Main Consonant gradation is the term used for a set of alternations which pervade the language, between a "strong grade" and a "weak grade". These alternations are conditioned by both phonology and morphosyntax and have a historical source. Historically, the phonological factor which triggered the weak grade on a given was the occurrence of a coda consonant within the same syllable. However, due to other processes of language change, there are now contexts where weak grade fails to occur in a closed syllable (Turkuun /tur.kuːn/ < /tur.kuen/ < /tur.ku.hen/), and there are contexts where the weak grade occurs in an open syllable. Morphosyntactically, the weak grade occurs in nominals (nouns, pronouns, adjectives) usually only before case suffixes, and in verbs usually only before person agreement suffixes.

The following is a general list of strong–weak correspondences.

Strong Weak
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
/k/ /∅~j~ʋ/
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA
Шаблон:IPA Шаблон:IPA

Other consonant alternations

Many of the remaining "irregular" patterns of Finnish noun and verb inflection are explained by a change of a historical Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA. The change from Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, a type of assibilation, is unconnected to consonant gradation, and dates back as early as Proto-Finnic. In modern Finnish the alternation is not productive, due to new cases of the sequence Шаблон:IPA having been introduced by later sound changes and loanwords, and assibilation therefore occurs only in certain morphologically defined positionsШаблон:Citation needed.

Words having this particular alternation are still subject to consonant gradation in forms that lack assibilation. Thus Finnish nouns of this type could be seen as having up to five distinct stems:[16] a word such as Шаблон:Lang 'water (sg. nom.)' has the forms Шаблон:Lang (sg. gen.), Шаблон:Lang (sg. part.), Шаблон:Lang (sg. ill.) Шаблон:Lang (pl. part.); as can be seen from the examples the change from Шаблон:Lang to Шаблон:Lang has only occurred in front of Шаблон:Lang. When a vowel other than Шаблон:Lang occurs, words like Шаблон:Lang inflect just like other nouns with a single Шаблон:Lang alternating with the consonant gradated Шаблон:Lang. Alternatively, Kiparsky proposes that all Finnish stems must end in a vowel, which in the case of polysyllabic stems may then be deleted when adding certain affixes and certain other conditions are fulfilled. For Шаблон:Lang he proposes the stem /vete/ (with stem final -e), which when combined with the partitive singular affix -tä/-ta drops the -e to become Шаблон:Lang (sg. part.).[17]

This pattern has, however, been reverted in some cases. Variation appears in particular in past tense verb forms, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang ('to deny', 'denied') but Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang ('to adjust', 'adjusted'). Both alternate forms (Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang) can also be found in dialects. Apparently this was caused by word pairs such as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang ('bring') and Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang ('rise'), which were felt important enough to keep them contrastive.

Assibilation occurred prior to the change of the original consonants cluster Шаблон:IPA to Шаблон:IPA, which can be seen in the inflection of the numerals Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang.

In many recent loanwords, there is vacillation between representing an original voiceless consonant as single or geminate: this is the case for example Шаблон:Lang (~ Шаблон:Lang) and Шаблон:Lang (~ Шаблон:Lang). The orthography generally favors the single form, if it exists. (More completely assimilated loans such as Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang generally have settled on geminates.)

Length

All phonemes except Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA can occur doubled phonemically as a phonetic increase in length. Consonant doubling always occurs at the boundary of a syllable in accordance with the rules of Finnish syllable structure.

Some example sets of words:

Шаблон:Lang 'fire'/'s/he came', Шаблон:Lang 'wind', Шаблон:Lang 'customs'
Шаблон:Lang 'mud', Шаблон:Lang 'other' (partitive sg.), Шаблон:Lang 'but', Шаблон:Lang 'to change' or 'to move'

A double Шаблон:IPA is rare in standard Finnish, but possible, e.g. Шаблон:Lang, a derogatory term for a religious fanatic. In some dialects, e.g. Savo, it is common: Шаблон:Lang, or standard Finnish Шаблон:Lang 'money' (in the partitive case). The distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is found only in foreign words; natively 'd' occurs only in the short form. While Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA may appear as geminates when spoken (e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA), this distinction is not phonemic, and is not indicated in spelling.

Phonotactics

The phonemic template of a syllable in Finnish is CVC, in which C can be an obstruent or a liquid consonant. V can be realized as a doubled vowel or a diphthong. A final consonant of a Finnish word, though not a syllable, must be a coronal one.

Originally Finnish syllables could not start with two consonants but many loans containing these have added this to the inventory. This is observable in older loans such as Шаблон:Lang < Swedish Шаблон:Lang ('French') contrasting newer loans Шаблон:Lang < Swedish Шаблон:Lang ('president'). In past decades, it was common to hear these clusters simplified in speech (Шаблон:Lang), particularly, though not exclusively, by either rural Finns or Finns who knew little or no Swedish or English. Even then, the Southwestern dialects formed an exception: consonant clusters, especially those with plosives, trills or nasals, are common: examples include place names Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang near the town Pori, or town Шаблон:Lang ('Kristinestad'). Nowadays the overwhelming majority of Finns have adopted initial consonant clusters in their speech.

Consonant phonotactics

Consonant phonotactics are as follows.[18]

Word-final consonants

Word-initial consonants

Word-initial consonant clusters

Word-final consonant clusters

  • None, except in dialects via vowel dropping.

Word-medial consonant clusters

  • The following clusters are not possible:
    • any exceeding 3 consonants (except in loan words)
    • stop + nasal
    • labial stop + non-labial stop
    • non-dental stop + semivowel
    • nasal + non-homorganic obstruent (except Шаблон:IPA)
    • nasal + sonorant
    • liquid + liquid
    • semivowel + consonant

Vowel phonotactics

Vowel phonotactics are as follows.[19]

Word-final and word-initial vowels

  • Any of the vowels can be found in this position.

Vowel sequences

  • Doubled vowels
  • Diphthongs
    • Of the 18 diphthongs, 15 are formed from any vowel followed by a close vowel. The 3 exceptions are Шаблон:IPA.
  • Vowel combinations
    • Approximately 20 combinations, always at syllable boundaries.
    • Unlike diphthongs, the second vowel is longer, as is expected, and it can be open Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA.
    • Sometimes 3–4 vowels can occur in a sequence if a medial consonant has disappeared.

Prosody

Stress

Stress in Finnish is non-phonemic. Like Hungarian and Icelandic, Finnish primary stress always occurs on the first syllable of a word.[20] Secondary stress normally falls on odd-numbered syllables. Contrary to primary stress, Finnish secondary stress is quantity sensitive.Шаблон:Citation needed Thus, if secondary stress would normally fall on a light (CV.) syllable but this is followed by a heavy syllable (CVV. or CVC.), the secondary stress moves one syllable further ("to the right") and the preceding foot (syllable group) therefore contains three syllables. Thus, Шаблон:Lang ("as my apple") contains light syllables only and has primary stress on the first syllable and secondary on the third, as expected: ómenànani. On the other hand, Шаблон:Lang ('as our apple') has a light third syllable (Шаблон:Lang) and a heavy fourth syllable (Шаблон:Lang), so secondary stress falls on the fourth syllable: ómenanàmme.

Certain Finnish dialects also have quantity-sensitive main stress pattern, but instead of moving the initial stress, they geminate the consonant, so that e.g. light-heavy CV.CVV becomes heavy-heavy CVCCVV, e.g. the partitive form of "fish" is pronounced Шаблон:Lang in the quantity-insensitive dialects but Шаблон:Lang in the quantity-sensitive ones (cf. also the examples under the "Length" section).

Secondary stress falls on the first syllable of non-initial parts of compounds, for example the compound Шаблон:Lang, meaning "wooden face" (from Шаблон:Lang, 'tree' and Шаблон:Lang, 'face'), is pronounced Шаблон:IPA but Шаблон:Lang, meaning "which was cleaned" (preceded by an agent in the genitive, "by someone"), is pronounced Шаблон:IPA.

Timing

Finnish is not really isochronic at any level. For example, Шаблон:Lang ('shouting') and Шаблон:Lang ('flushing') are distinct words, where the initial syllables Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang are of different length. Additionally, acoustic measurements show that the first syllable of a word is longer in duration than other syllables, in addition to its phonological doubling.

Sandhi

Finnish sandhi is extremely frequent, appearing between many words and morphemes, in formal standard language and in everyday spoken language. In most registers, it is never written down; only dialectal transcriptions preserve it, the rest settling for a morphemic notation. There are two processes. The first is simple assimilation with respect to place of articulation (e.g. Шаблон:Lang > Шаблон:Lang). The second is predictive gemination of initial consonants on morpheme boundaries.

Simple phonetic incomplete assimilations include:

Gemination of a morpheme-initial consonant occurs when the morpheme preceding it ends in a vowel and belongs to one of certain morphological classes. Gemination or a tendency of a morpheme to cause gemination is sometimes indicated with an apostrophe or a superscripted "x", e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA. Examples of gemination:

e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('open-box bed for wood chips')
  • imperatives and connegative imperatives of the second-person singular, as well as the connegative form of the present indicative (these three are always similar to each other)
e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('buy a boat') [22]
  • connegative imperatives of the third-person singular, first-person plural, second-person plural, third-person plural[22] and passive[23]
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('actually, don't do it')
  • connegative forms of present passive indicative verbs[23]
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('it will not be taken after all', colloquially 'we won't take it after all')
  • connegative forms of present potential verbs (including passive)[23]
Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA ('I probably will not do it (after all)', formal or poetic speech)
  • first infinitives (the dictionary form)
e.g. Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA[22]

The gemination can occur between morphemes of a single word as in Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA ('to me too'; orthographically Шаблон:Lang), between parts of a compound word as in Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA ('family meeting'; orthographically Шаблон:Lang), or between separate words as in Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA ('come here!'). In elaborate standard language, the gemination affects even morphemes with a vowel beginning: Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA ('take an apple!'). In casual speech, this is however often rendered as Шаблон:IPA without a glottal stop.

These rules are generally valid for the standard language, although many Southwestern dialects, for instance, do not recognise the phenomenon at all. Even in the standard language there is idiolectal variation (disagreement between different speakers); e.g. whether Шаблон:Lang ('three') should cause a gemination of the following initial consonant or not: Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA ('three crows'). Both forms occur and neither one of them is standardised, since in any case it does not affect writing. In some dictionaries compiled for foreigners or linguists, however, the tendency of geminating the following consonant is marked by a superscript Шаблон:Lang as in Шаблон:Lang.

Historically, morpheme-boundary gemination is the result of regressive assimilation. The preceding word originally ended in Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA. For instance, the modern Finnish word for 'boat' Шаблон:Lang used to be Шаблон:Lang (a form still existing in the closely related Karelian language). At some point in time, these Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPAs were assimilated by the initial consonant of a following word, e.g. Шаблон:Lang' ('the boat is moving'). Here we get the modern Finnish form Шаблон:IPA (orthographically Шаблон:Lang), even though the independent form Шаблон:IPA has no sign of the old final consonant Шаблон:IPA.

In many Finnish dialects, including that of Helsinki, the gemination at morpheme boundaries has become more widespread due to the loss of additional final consonants, which appear only as gemination of the following consonant, cf. French liaison. For example, the standard word for 'now' Шаблон:Lang has lost its Шаблон:Lang and become Шаблон:Lang in Helsinki speech. However, Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA ('now it [does something]') is pronounced Шаблон:IPA and not Шаблон:IPA (although the latter would be permissible in the dialect of Turku).

Similar remnants of a lost word-final Шаблон:IPA can be seen in dialects, where e.g. the genitive form of the first singular pronoun is regularly Шаблон:IPA (standard language Шаблон:Lang): Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA ('it is mine'). Preceding an approximant, the Шаблон:IPA is completely assimilated: Шаблон:IPA ('my wife'). Preceding a vowel, however, the Шаблон:IPA however appears in a different form: Шаблон:IPA + Шаблон:IPA → Шаблон:IPA or even Шаблон:IPA ('my own').

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Works cited

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

Шаблон:Language phonologies

Партнерские ресурсы
Криптовалюты
Магазины
Хостинг
Разное

  1. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 3,2 Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, cited in Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  8. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  13. ↑ York Papers in Linguistics, no. 17 (1996), p. 202
  14. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  15. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  16. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  17. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  18. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  19. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  20. ↑ Шаблон:Harvcoltxt
  21. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  22. ↑ 22,0 22,1 22,2 22,3 22,4 22,5 Шаблон:Cite book
  23. ↑ 23,0 23,1 23,2 23,3 Шаблон:Cite web
  24. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
  25. ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
Источник — http://wikihandbk.com/ruwiki/index.php?title=Английская_Википедия:Finnish_phonology&oldid=14703557