Английская Википедия:Five precepts

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Stone plaque with five precepts shortly described in English, engraved in the stone.
Plaque with the five precepts engraved in English, Lumbini, Nepal

Шаблон:LayBuddhistPractices Шаблон:Infobox Buddhist term

The five precepts (Шаблон:Lang-sa; Шаблон:Lang-pi) or five rules of training (Шаблон:Lang-sa; Шаблон:Lang-pi)Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay people. They constitute the basic code of ethics to be respected by lay followers of Buddhism. The precepts are commitments to abstain from killing living beings, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying and intoxication. Within the Buddhist doctrine, they are meant to develop mind and character to make progress on the path to enlightenment. They are sometimes referred to as the Śrāvakayāna precepts in the Mahāyāna tradition, contrasting them with the bodhisattva precepts. The five precepts form the basis of several parts of Buddhist doctrine, both lay and monastic. With regard to their fundamental role in Buddhist ethics, they have been compared with the ten commandments in Abrahamic religionsШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or the ethical codes of Confucianism. The precepts have been connected with utilitarianist, deontological and virtue approaches to ethics, though by 2017, such categorization by western terminology had mostly been abandoned by scholars. The precepts have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature, and some scholars argue they can complement the concept of human rights.

The five precepts were common to the religious milieu of 6th-century BCE India, but the Buddha's focus on awareness through the fifth precept was unique. As shown in Early Buddhist Texts, the precepts grew to be more important, and finally became a condition for membership of the Buddhist religion. When Buddhism spread to different places and people, the role of the precepts began to vary. In countries where Buddhism had to compete with other religions, such as China, the ritual of undertaking the five precepts developed into an initiation ceremony to become a Buddhist layperson. On the other hand, in countries with little competition from other religions, such as Thailand, the ceremony has had little relation to the rite of becoming Buddhist, as many people are presumed Buddhist from birth.

Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of non-harming (Pāli and Шаблон:Lang-sa). The Pali Canon recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others. Compassion and a belief in karmic retribution form the foundation of the precepts. Undertaking the five precepts is part of regular lay devotional practice, both at home and at the local temple. However, the extent to which people keep them differs per region and time. People keep them with an intention to develop themselves, but also out of fear of a bad rebirth.

  1. The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment,Шаблон:Sfn suicide, abortionШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and euthanasia.Шаблон:Sfn In practice, however, many Buddhist countries still use the death penalty. With regard to abortion, Buddhist countries take the middle ground, by condemning though not prohibiting it fully. The Buddhist attitude to violence is generally interpreted as opposing all warfare, but some scholars have raised exceptions found in later texts.
  2. The second precept prohibits theft and related activities such as fraud and forgery.
  3. The third precept refers to sexual misconduct, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment.
  4. The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.
  5. The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs, or other means.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Early Buddhist Texts nearly always condemn alcohol, and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts. Smoking is sometimes also included here. Unlike other lay precepts such as abstinence from killing, theft, sexual misconduct, and ill-speech, the outlook on intoxication is much more forgiving. In the Sarakani sutta[1], the Buddha is said to proclaim that Sarakani who 'took to drink' has attained stream-entry and was bound for Nirvana, on the basis that such a person merely even holds some of the Dharma in affectionate regard, even if they did not unwaveringly believe in the Buddha's Dharma.

In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts. As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations. They have also been integrated into mindfulness training programs, though many mindfulness specialists do not support this because of the precepts' religious import. Lastly, many conflict prevention programs make use of the precepts.

Role in Buddhist doctrine

Wheel with eight spokes, with the different aspects of the Buddhist eight-fold written on them
The Noble Eightfold Path, of which the five precepts are part.

Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality.Шаблон:Sfn It is the most important system of morality in Buddhism, together with the monastic rules.[2] Śīla (Sanskrit; Шаблон:Lang-pi) is used to refer to Buddhist precepts,Шаблон:Sfn including the five.Шаблон:Sfn But the word also refers to the virtue and morality which lies at the foundation of the spiritual path to enlightenment, which is the first of the three forms of training on the path. Thus, the precepts are rules or guidelines to develop mind and character to make progress on the path to enlightenment.Шаблон:Sfn The five precepts are part of the right speech, action and livelihood aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path, the core teaching of Buddhism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Moreover, the practice of the five precepts and other parts of śīla are described as forms of merit-making, means to create good karma.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The five precepts have been described as social values that bring harmony to society,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and breaches of the precepts described as antithetical to a harmonious society.Шаблон:Sfn On a similar note, in Buddhist texts, the ideal, righteous society is one in which people keep the five precepts.Шаблон:Sfn

Comparing different parts of Buddhist doctrine, the five precepts form the basis of the eight precepts, which are lay precepts stricter than the five precepts, similar to monastic precepts.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Secondly, the five precepts form the first half of the ten or eleven precepts for a person aiming to become a Buddha (bodhisattva), as mentioned in the Brahmajala Sūtra of the Mahāyāna tradition.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Contrasting these precepts with the five precepts, the latter were commonly referred to by Mahāyānists as the śrāvakayāna precepts, or the precepts of those aiming to become enlightened disciples (Шаблон:Lang-sa; Шаблон:Lang-pi) of a Buddha, but not Buddhas themselves. The ten–eleven bodhisattva precepts presuppose the five precepts, and are partly based on them.Шаблон:Sfn The five precepts are also partly found in the teaching called the ten good courses of action, referred to in Theravāda (Шаблон:Lang-pi) and Tibetan Buddhism (Шаблон:Lang-sa; Шаблон:Bo).[2]Шаблон:Sfn Finally, the first four of the five precepts are very similar to the most fundamental rules of monastic discipline (Шаблон:Lang-pi), and may have influenced their development.Шаблон:Sfn

In conclusion, the five precepts lie at the foundation of all Buddhist practice, and in that respect, can be compared with the ten commandments in Christianity and JudaismШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or the ethical codes of Confucianism.Шаблон:Sfn

History

The five precepts were part of Early Buddhism and are common to nearly all schools of Buddhism.Шаблон:Sfn In Early Buddhism, the five precepts were regarded as an ethic of restraint, to restrain unwholesome tendencies and thereby purify one's being to attain enlightenment.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The five precepts were based on the pañcaśīla, prohibitions for pre-Buddhist Brahmanic priests, which were adopted in many Indic religions around 6th century BCE.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The first four Buddhist precepts were nearly identical to these pañcaśīla, but the fifth precept, the prohibition on intoxication, was new in Buddhism:Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn the Buddha's emphasis on awareness (Шаблон:Lang-pi) was unique.Шаблон:Sfn

In some schools of ancient Indic Buddhism, Buddhist devotees could choose to adhere to only a number of precepts, instead of the complete five. The schools that would survive in later periods, however, that is Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism, were both ambiguous about this practice. Some early Mahāyāna texts allow it, but some do not; Theravāda texts do not discuss such selective practice at all.Шаблон:Sfn

The prohibition on killing had motivated early Buddhists to form a stance against animal sacrifice, a common religious ritual practice in ancient India.[3]Шаблон:Sfn According to the Pāli Canon, however, early Buddhists did not adopt a vegetarian lifestyle.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

In Early Buddhist Texts, the role of the five precepts gradually develops. First of all, the precepts are combined with a declaration of faith in the Triple Gem (the Buddha, his teaching and the monastic community). Next, the precepts develop to become the foundation of lay practice.Шаблон:Sfn The precepts are seen as a preliminary condition for the higher development of the mind.Шаблон:Sfn At a third stage in the texts, the precepts are actually mentioned together with the triple gem, as though they are part of it. Lastly, the precepts, together with the triple gem, become a required condition for the practice of Buddhism, as laypeople have to undergo a formal initiation to become a member of the Buddhist religion.Шаблон:Sfn When Buddhism spread to different places and people, the role of the precepts began to vary. In countries in which Buddhism was adopted as the main religion without much competition from other religious disciplines, such as Thailand, the relation between the initiation of a layperson and the five precepts has been virtually non-existent. In such countries, the taking of the precepts has become a sort of ritual cleansing ceremony. People are presumed Buddhist from birth without much of an initiation. The precepts are often committed to by new followers as part of their installment, yet this is not very pronounced. However, in some countries like China, where Buddhism was not the only religion, the precepts became an ordination ceremony to initiate laypeople into the Buddhist religion.Шаблон:Sfn

Map marking part of China
In 8th-century China, people held strict attitudes about abstinence of alcohol.

In China, the five precepts were introduced in the first centuries CE, both in their śrāvakayāna and bodhisattva formats.Шаблон:Sfn During this time, it was particularly Buddhist teachers who promoted abstinence from alcohol (the fifth precept), since Daoism and other thought systems emphasized moderation rather than full abstinence. Chinese Buddhists interpreted the fifth precept strictly, even more so than in Indic Buddhism. For example, the monk Daoshi (Шаблон:Circa 600–683) dedicated large sections of his encyclopedic writings to abstinence from alcohol. However, in some parts of China, such as Dunhuang, considerable evidence has been found of alcohol consumption among both lay people and monastics. Later, from the 8th century onward, strict attitudes of abstinence led to a development of a distinct tea culture among Chinese monastics and lay intellectuals, in which tea gatherings replaced gatherings with alcoholic beverages, and were advocated as such.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn These strict attitudes were formed partly because of the religious writings, but may also have been affected by the bloody An Lushan Rebellion of 775, which had a sobering effect on 8th-century Chinese society.Шаблон:Sfn When the five precepts were integrated in Chinese society, they were associated and connected with karma, Chinese cosmology and medicine, a Daoist worldview, and Confucian virtue ethics.Шаблон:Sfn

Ceremonies

In Pāli tradition

Asian person holding hands in prayer, facing two monks in brown robes.
In Thailand, a leading lay person will normally request the monk to administer the precepts.

In the Theravāda tradition, the precepts are recited in a standardized fashion, using Pāli language. In Thailand, a leading lay person will normally request the monk to administer the precepts by reciting the following three times:

Шаблон:Blockquote

After this, the monk administering the precepts will recite a reverential line of text to introduce the ceremony, after which he guides the lay people in declaring that they take their refuge in the three refuges or triple gem.Шаблон:Sfn

He then continues with reciting the five precepts:Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

  1. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from onslaught on breathing beings." (Шаблон:Lang-pi)
  2. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from taking what is not given." (Шаблон:Lang-pi)
  3. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from sexual misconduct." (Шаблон:Lang-pi)
  4. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from false speech." (Шаблон:Lang-pi)
  5. "I undertake the training-precept to abstain from alcoholic drink or drugs that are an opportunity for heedlessness." (Шаблон:Lang-pi)

After the lay people have repeated the five precepts after the monk, the monk will close the ceremony reciting:

Шаблон:Blockquote

In other textual traditions

Plaque with Chinese characters written down vertically. A male hand is pointing toward them with a pointer.
The format of the ceremony for taking the precepts occurs several times in the Chinese Buddhist Canon. Plaque used at a zen center.

Шаблон:See also The format of the ceremony for taking the precepts occurs several times in the Chinese Buddhist Canon, in slightly different forms.[4]

One formula of the precepts can be found in the Treatise on Taking Refuge and the Precepts (Шаблон:Zh):

  1. As all Buddhas refrained from killing until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from killing until the end of my life.
  2. As all Buddhas refrained from stealing until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from stealing until the end of my life.
  3. As all Buddhas refrained from sexual misconduct until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from sexual misconduct until the end of my life.
  4. As all Buddhas refrained from false speech until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from false speech until the end of my life.
  5. As all Buddhas refrained from alcohol until the end of their lives, so I too will refrain from alcohol until the end of my life.[5]

Similarly, in the Mūla-Sarvāstivāda texts used in Tibetan Buddhism, the precepts are formulated such that one takes the precepts upon oneself for one's entire lifespan, following the examples of the enlightened disciples of the Buddha (arahant).Шаблон:Sfn

Principles

Precept Accompanying virtuesШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Related to human rightsШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
1. Abstention from killing living beings Kindness and compassion Right to life
2. Abstention from theft Generosity and renunciation Right of property
3. Abstention from sexual misconduct Contentment and respect for faithfulness Right to fidelity in marriage
4. Abstention from speaking lies (falsehood) Being honest and dependable Right of human dignity
5. Abstention from intoxication Mindfulness and responsibility Right of security and safety
Dark beings throw men with mustaches into a large cauldron with a huge fire underneath it.
Living a life in violation of the precepts is believed to lead to rebirth in a hell.

The five precepts can be found in many places in the Early Buddhist Texts.Шаблон:Sfn The precepts are regarded as means to building good character, or as an expression of such character. The Pāli Canon describes them as means to avoid harm to oneself and others.Шаблон:Sfn It further describes them as gifts toward oneself and others.Шаблон:Sfn Moreover, the texts say that people who uphold them will be confident in any gathering of people,[2]Шаблон:Sfn will have wealth and a good reputation, and will die a peaceful death, reborn in heavenШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn or as a human being. On the other hand, living a life in violation of the precepts is believed to lead to rebirth in an unhappy destination.[2] They are understood as principles that define a person as human in body and mind.Шаблон:Sfn

The precepts are normative rules, but are formulated and understood as "undertakings"Шаблон:Sfn rather than commandments enforced by a moral authority,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn according to the voluntary and gradualist standards of Buddhist ethics.Шаблон:Sfn They are forms of restraint formulated in negative terms, but are also accompanied by virtues and positive behaviors,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which are cultivated through the practice of the precepts.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn The most important of these virtues is non-harming (Pāli and Шаблон:Lang-sa),[3]Шаблон:Sfn which underlies all of the five precepts.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Refn Precisely, the texts say that one should keep the precepts, adhering to the principle of comparing oneself with others:Шаблон:Sfn Шаблон:Blockquote

In other words, all living beings are alike in that they want to be happy and not suffer. Comparing oneself with others, one should therefore not hurt others as one would not want to be hurt.Шаблон:Sfn Ethicist Pinit Ratanakul argues that the compassion which motivates upholding the precepts comes from an understanding that all living beings are equal and of a nature that they are 'not-self' (Шаблон:Lang-pi).Шаблон:Sfn Another aspect that is fundamental to this is the belief in karmic retribution.Шаблон:Sfn

Two pendants of amber
A layperson who upholds the precepts is described in the texts as a "jewel among laymen".

In the upholding or violation of the precepts, intention is crucial.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In the Pāli scriptures, an example is mentioned of a person stealing an animal only to set it free, which was not seen as an offense of theft.Шаблон:Sfn In the Pāli commentaries, a precept is understood to be violated when the person violating it finds the object of the transgression (e.g. things to be stolen), is aware of the violation, has the intention to violate it, does actually act on that intention, and does so successfully.Шаблон:Sfn

Upholding the precepts is sometimes distinguished in three levels: to uphold them without having formally undertaken them; to uphold them formally, willing to sacrifice one's own life for it; and finally, to spontaneously uphold them.Шаблон:Sfn The latter refers to the arahant, who is understood to be morally incapable of violating the first four precepts.Шаблон:Sfn A layperson who upholds the precepts is described in the texts as a "jewel among laymen".Шаблон:Sfn On the other hand, the most serious violations of the precepts are the five actions of immediate retribution, which are believed to lead the perpetrator to an unavoidable rebirth in hell. These consist of injuring a Buddha, killing an arahant, killing one's father or mother, and causing the monastic community to have a schism.Шаблон:Sfn

Practice in general

Lay followers often undertake these training rules in the same ceremony as they take the refuges.Шаблон:Sfn[6] Monks administer the precepts to the laypeople, which creates an additional psychological effect.Шаблон:Sfn Buddhist lay people may recite the precepts regularly at home, and before an important ceremony at the temple to prepare the mind for the ceremony.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Asian monk smiling
Thich Nhat Hanh wrote about the five precepts in a wider scope, with regard to social and institutional relations.

The five precepts are at the core of Buddhist morality.Шаблон:Sfn In field studies in some countries like Sri Lanka, villagers describe them as the core of the religion.Шаблон:Sfn Anthropologist Barend Terwiel found in his fieldwork that most Thai villagers knew the precepts by heart, and many, especially the elderly, could explain the implications of the precepts following traditional interpretations.Шаблон:Sfn

However, Buddhists vary in how strict they follow them.Шаблон:Sfn Devotees who have just started keeping the precepts will typically have to exercise considerable restraint. When they become used to the precepts, they start to embody them more naturally.Шаблон:Sfn Researchers doing field studies in traditional Buddhist societies have found that the five precepts are generally considered demanding and challenging.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For example, anthropologist Stanley Tambiah found in his field studies that strict observance of the precepts had "little positive interest for the villager ... not because he devalues them but because they are not normally open to him". Observing precepts was seen to be mostly the role of a monk or an elderly lay person.Шаблон:Sfn More recently, in a 1997 survey in Thailand, only 13.8% of the respondents indicated they adhered to the five precepts in their daily lives, with the fourth and fifth precept least likely to be adhered to.Шаблон:Sfn Yet, people do consider the precepts worth striving for, and do uphold them out of fear of bad karma and being reborn in hell, or because they believe in that the Buddha issued these rules, and that they therefore should be maintained.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Anthropologist Melford Spiro found that Burmese Buddhists mostly upheld the precepts to avoid bad karma, as opposed to expecting to gain good karma.Шаблон:Sfn Scholar of religion Winston King observed from his field studies that the moral principles of Burmese Buddhists were based on personal self-developmental motives rather than other-regarding motives. Scholar of religion Richard Jones concludes that the moral motives of Buddhists in adhering to the precepts are based on the idea that renouncing self-service, ironically, serves oneself.Шаблон:Sfn

In East Asian Buddhism, the precepts are intrinsically connected with the initiation as a Buddhist lay person. Early Chinese translations such as the Upāsaka-śila Sūtra hold that the precepts should only be ritually transmitted by a monastic. The texts describe that in the ritual the power of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas is transmitted, and helps the initiate to keep the precepts. This "lay ordination" ritual usually occurs after a stay in a temple, and often after a monastic ordination (Шаблон:Lang-pi); has taken place. The ordained lay person is then given a religious name. The restrictions that apply are similar to a monastic ordination, such as permission from parents.Шаблон:Sfn

In the Theravāda tradition, the precepts are usually taken "each separately" (Шаблон:Lang-pi), to indicate that if one precept should be broken, the other precepts are still intact. In very solemn occasions, or for very pious devotees, the precepts may be taken as a group rather than each separately.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn This does not mean, however, that only some of the precepts can be undertaken; they are always committed to as a complete set.Шаблон:Sfn In East Asian Buddhism, however, the vow of taking the precepts is considered a solemn matter, and it is not uncommon for lay people to undertake only the precepts that they are confident they can keep.Шаблон:Sfn The act of taking a vow to keep the precepts is what makes it karmically effective: Spiro found that someone who did not violate the precepts, but did not have any intention to keep them either, was not believed to accrue any religious merit. On the other hand, when people took a vow to keep the precepts, and then broke them afterwards, the negative karma was considered larger than in the case no vow was taken to keep the precepts.Шаблон:Sfn

Several modern teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh and Sulak Sivaraksa have written about the five precepts in a wider scope, with regard to social and institutional relations. In these perspectives, mass production of weapons or spreading untruth through media and education also violates the precepts.Шаблон:Sfn[7] On a similar note, human rights organizations in Southeast Asia have attempted to advocate respect for human rights by referring to the five precepts as guiding principles.Шаблон:Sfn

First precept

Textual analysis

Mayfly on human finger
The first of the five precepts includes abstention from killing small animals such as insects.

The first precept prohibits the taking of life of a sentient being. It is violated when someone intentionally and successfully kills such a sentient being, having understood it to be sentient and using effort in the process.Шаблон:Sfn[8] Causing injury goes against the spirit of the precept, but does, technically speaking, not violate it.Шаблон:Sfn The first precept includes taking the lives of animals, even small insects. However, it has also been pointed out that the seriousness of taking life depends on the size, intelligence, benefits done and the spiritual attainments of that living being. Killing a large animal is worse than killing a small animal (also because it costs more effort); killing a spiritually accomplished master is regarded as more severe than the killing of another "more average" human being; and killing a human being is more severe than the killing of an animal. But all killing is condemned.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Virtues that accompany this precept are respect for dignity of life,Шаблон:Sfn kindness and compassion,Шаблон:Sfn the latter expressed as "trembling for the welfare of others".Шаблон:Sfn A positive behavior that goes together with this precept is protecting living beings.Шаблон:Sfn Positive virtues like sympathy and respect for other living beings in this regard are based on a belief in the cycle of rebirthШаблон:Em dashthat all living beings must be born and reborn.Шаблон:Sfn The concept of the fundamental Buddha nature of all human beings also underlies the first precept.Шаблон:Sfn

The description of the first precept can be interpreted as a prohibition of capital punishment.Шаблон:Sfn Suicide is also seen as part of the prohibition.Шаблон:Sfn Moreover, abortion (of a sentient being) goes against the precept, since in an act of abortion, the criteria for violation are all met.[8]Шаблон:Sfn In Buddhism, human life is understood to start at conception.Шаблон:Sfn A prohibition of abortion is mentioned explicitly in the monastic precepts, and several Buddhist tales warn of the harmful karmic consequences of abortion.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Bioethicist Damien Keown argues that Early Buddhist Texts do not allow for exceptions with regard to abortion, as they consist of a "consistent' (i.e. exceptionless) pro-life position".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Keown further proposes that a middle way approach to the five precepts is logically hard to defend.Шаблон:Sfn Asian studies scholar Giulio Agostini argues, however, that Buddhist commentators in India from the 4th century onward thought abortion did not break the precepts under certain circumstances.Шаблон:Sfn

Traditional painting with the Buddha at the center and numerous animals around him, illustrating different tales
Buddhist tales describe the karmic consequences of abortion.Шаблон:Sfn

Ordering another person to kill is also included in this precept,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn therefore requesting or administering euthanasia can be considered a violation of the precept,Шаблон:Sfn as well as advising another person to commit abortion.Шаблон:Sfn With regard to euthanasia and assisted suicide, Keown quotes the Pāli Dīgha Nikāya that says a person upholding the first precept "does not kill a living being, does not cause a living being to be killed, does not approve of the killing of a living being".Шаблон:Sfn Keown argues that in Buddhist ethics, regardless of motives, death can never be the aim of one's actions.Шаблон:Sfn

Interpretations of how Buddhist texts regard warfare are varied, but in general Buddhist doctrine is considered to oppose all warfare. In many Jātaka tales, such as that of Prince Temiya, as well as some historical documents, the virtue of non-violence is taken as an opposition to all war, both offensive and defensive. At the same time, though, the Buddha is often shown not to explicitly oppose war in his conversations with political figures. Buddhologist André Bareau points out that the Buddha was reserved in his involvement of the details of administrative policy, and concentrated on the moral and spiritual development of his disciples instead. He may have believed such involvement to be futile, or detrimental to Buddhism. Nevertheless, at least one disciple of the Buddha is mentioned in the texts who refrained from retaliating his enemies because of the Buddha, that is King Pasenadi (Шаблон:Lang-sa). The texts are ambiguous in explaining his motives though.Шаблон:Sfn In some later Mahāyāna texts, such as in the writings of Asaṅga, examples are mentioned of people who kill those who persecute Buddhists.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In these examples, killing is justified by the authors because protecting Buddhism was seen as more important than keeping the precepts. Another example that is often cited is that of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇī, who is mentioned in the post-canonical Pāli Mahāvaṃsa chronicle. In the chronicle, the king is saddened with the loss of life after a war, but comforted by a Buddhist monk, who states that nearly everyone who was killed did not uphold the precepts anyway.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Buddhist studies scholar Lambert Schmithausen argues that in many of these cases Buddhist teachings like that of emptiness were misused to further an agenda of war or other violence.Шаблон:Sfn

In practice

Шаблон:See also

Файл:Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India.jpg
Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India

Field studies in Cambodia and Burma have shown that many Buddhists considered the first precept the most important, or the most blamable.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In some traditional communities, such as in Kandal Province in pre-war Cambodia, as well as Burma in the 1980s, it was uncommon for Buddhists to slaughter animals, to the extent that meat had to be bought from non-Buddhists.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn In his field studies in Thailand in the 1960s, Terwiel found that villagers did tend to kill insects, but were reluctant and self-conflicted with regard to killing larger animals.Шаблон:Sfn In Spiro's field studies, however, Burmese villagers were highly reluctant even to kill insects.Шаблон:Sfn

Early Buddhists did not adopt a vegetarian lifestyle. Indeed, in several Pāli texts vegetarianism is described as irrelevant in the spiritual purification of the mind. There are prohibitions on certain types of meat, however, especially those which are condemned by society. The idea of abstaining from killing animal life has also led to a prohibition on professions that involve trade in flesh or living beings, but not to a full prohibition of all agriculture that involves cattle.Шаблон:Sfn In modern times, referring to the law of supply and demand or other principles, some Theravādin Buddhists have attempted to promote vegetarianism as part of the five precepts. For example, the Thai Santi Asoke movement practices vegetarianism.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Furthermore, among some schools of Buddhism, there has been some debate with regard to a principle in the monastic discipline. This principle states that a Buddhist monk cannot accept meat if it comes from animals especially slaughtered for him. Some teachers have interpreted this to mean that when the recipient has no knowledge on whether the animal has been killed for him, he cannot accept the food either. Similarly, there has been debate as to whether laypeople should be vegetarian when adhering to the five precepts.Шаблон:Sfn Though vegetarianism among Theravādins is generally uncommon, it has been practiced much in East Asian countries,Шаблон:Sfn as some Mahāyāna texts, such as the Mahāparanirvana Sūtra and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, condemn the eating of meat.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, even among Mahāyāna BuddhistsШаблон:Em dashand East Asian BuddhistsШаблон:Em dashthere is disagreement on whether vegetarianism should be practiced. In the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, biological, social and hygienic reasons are given for a vegetarian diet; however, historically, a major factor in the development of a vegetarian lifestyle among Mahāyāna communities may have been that Mahāyāna monastics cultivated their own crops for food, rather than living from alms.Шаблон:Sfn Already from the 4th century CE, Chinese writer Xi Chao understood the five precepts to include vegetarianism.Шаблон:Sfn

The Dalai Lama
The Dalai Lama has rejected forms of protest that are self-harming.Шаблон:Sfn

Apart from trade in flesh or living beings, there are also other professions considered undesirable. Vietnamese teacher Thich Nhat Hanh gives a list of examples, such as working in the arms industry, the military, police, producing or selling poison or drugs such as alcohol and tobacco.Шаблон:Sfn

In general, the first precept has been interpreted by Buddhists as a call for non-violence and pacifism. But there have been some exceptions of people who did not interpret the first precept as an opposition to war. For example, in the twentieth century, some Japanese Zen teachers wrote in support of violence in war, and some of them argued this should be seen as a means to uphold the first precept.[9] There is some debate and controversy surrounding the problem whether a person can commit suicide, such as self-immolation, to reduce other people's suffering in the long run, such as in protest to improve a political situation in a country. Teachers like the Dalai Lama and Shengyan have rejected forms of protest like self-immolation, as well as other acts of self-harming or fasting as forms of protest.Шаблон:Sfn

Although capital punishment goes against the first precept, as of 2001, many countries in Asia still maintained the death penalty, including Sri Lanka, Thailand, China and Taiwan. In some Buddhist countries, such as Sri Lanka and Thailand, capital punishment was applied during some periods, while during other periods no capital punishment was used at all. In other countries with Buddhism, like China and Taiwan, Buddhism, or any religion for that matter, has had no influence in policy decisions of the government. Countries with Buddhism that have abolished capital punishment include Cambodia and Hong Kong.Шаблон:Sfn

In general, Buddhist traditions oppose abortion.Шаблон:Sfn In many countries with Buddhist traditions such as Thailand, Taiwan, Korea and Japan, however, abortion is a widespread practice, whether legal or not. Many people in these countries consider abortion immoral, but also think it should be less prohibited. Ethicist Roy W. Perrett, following Ratanakul, argues that this field research data does not so much indicate hypocrisy, but rather points at a "Middle Way" in applying Buddhist doctrine to solve a moral dilemma. Buddhists tend to take "both sides" on the pro-life–pro-choice debate, being against the taking of life of a fetus in principle, but also believing in compassion toward mothers. Similar attitudes may explain the Japanese mizuko kuyō ceremony, a Buddhist memorial service for aborted children, which has led to a debate in Japanese society concerning abortion, and finally brought the Japanese to a consensus that abortion should not be taken lightly, though it should be legalized. This position, held by Japanese Buddhists, takes the middle ground between the Japanese neo-Shinto "pro-life" position, and the liberationist, "pro-choice" arguments.Шаблон:Sfn Keown points out, however, that this compromise does not mean a Buddhist Middle Way between two extremes, but rather incorporates two opposite perspectives.Шаблон:Sfn In Thailand, women who wish to have abortion usually do so in the early stages of pregnancy, because they believe the karmic consequences are less then. Having had abortion, Thai women usually make merits to compensate for the negative karma.Шаблон:Sfn

Second precept

Textual analysis

One hand giving money to another hand, held behind a back.
Studies discovered that people who reported not adhering to the five precepts more often tended to pay bribes.

The second precept prohibits theft, and involves the intention to steal what one perceives as not belonging to oneself ("what is not given") and acting successfully upon that intention. The severity of the act of theft is judged by the worth of the owner and the worth of that which is stolen. Underhand dealings, fraud, cheating and forgery are also included in this precept.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Accompanying virtues are generosity, renunciation,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and right livelihood,Шаблон:Sfn and a positive behavior is the protection of other people's property.Шаблон:Sfn

In practice

The second precept includes different ways of stealing and fraud. Borrowing without permission is sometimes included,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn as well as gambling.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Psychologist Vanchai Ariyabuddhiphongs did studies in the 2000s and 2010s in Thailand and discovered that people who did not adhere to the five precepts more often tended to believe that money was the most important goal in life, and would more often pay bribes than people who did adhere to the precepts.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On the other hand, people who observed the five precepts regarded themselves as wealthier and happier than people who did not observe the precepts.Шаблон:Sfn

Professions that are seen to violate the second precept include working in the gambling industry or marketing products that are not actually required for the customer.Шаблон:Sfn

Third precept

Textual analysis

The third precept condemns sexual misconduct. This has been interpreted in classical texts to include any form of sexual misconduct, which would therefore include inappropriate touching and speech, with a married or engaged person, fornication, rape, incest, sex with a minor (under 18 years, or a person "protected by any relative"), and sex with a prostitute.Шаблон:Sfn In later texts, details such as intercourse at an inappropriate time or inappropriate place are also counted as breaches of the third precept.Шаблон:Sfn Masturbation goes against the spirit of the precept, because of wrongful fantasy. As a manner of uncelibacy, it is not prohibited for laypeople.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

The third precept is explained as preventing profound spiritual damage to oneself and others. The transgression is regarded as more severe if the other person is a good person.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Virtues that go hand-in-hand with the third precept are contentment, especially with one's partner,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and recognition and respect for faithfulness in a marriage, and respect for the sexual nature of oneself and others.Шаблон:Sfn

In practice

The third precept is interpreted as avoiding harm to another by using sexuality in the wrong way. This means not engaging with inappropriate partners, but also respecting one's personal commitment to a relationship.Шаблон:Sfn In some traditions, the precept also condemns adultery with a person whose spouse agrees with the act, since the nature of the act itself is condemned. Furthermore, flirting with a married person may also be regarded as a violation.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Though prostitution is discouraged in the third precept, it is usually not actively prohibited by Buddhist teachers.Шаблон:Sfn With regard to applications of the principles of the third precept, the precept, or any Buddhist principle for that matter, is usually not connected with a stance against contraception.[10]Шаблон:Sfn In traditional Buddhist societies such as Sri Lanka, pre-marital sex is considered to violate the precept, though this is not always adhered to by people who already intend to marry.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

In the interpretation of modern teachers, the precept includes any person in a sexual or a dependent relationship, for example as someone's child, with another person, as they define the precept by terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment.Шаблон:Sfn Some modern teachers include masturbation as a violation of the precept,Шаблон:Sfn others include certain professions, such as those that involve sexual exploitation, prostitution or pornography, and professions that promote unhealthy sexual behavior, such as in the entertainment industry.Шаблон:Sfn

Fourth precept

Textual analysis

The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action.Шаблон:Sfn Avoiding other forms of wrong speech are also considered part of this precept, consisting of malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn A breach of the precept is considered more serious if the falsehood is motivated by an ulterior motiveШаблон:Sfn (rather than, for example, "a small white lie").Шаблон:Sfn The accompanying virtue is being honest and dependable,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn and involves honesty in work, truthfulness to others, loyalty to superiors and gratitude to benefactors.Шаблон:Sfn In Buddhist texts, this precept is considered second in importance to the first precept, because a lying person is regarded to have no shame, and therefore capable of many wrongs.Шаблон:Sfn Untruthfulness is not only to be avoided because it harms others, but also because it goes against the Buddhist ideal of finding the truth.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

In practice

The fourth precept includes avoidance of lying and harmful speech.Шаблон:Sfn Some modern teachers such as Thich Nhat Hanh interpret this to include avoiding spreading false news and uncertain information.Шаблон:Sfn Work that involves data manipulation, false advertising or online scams can also be regarded as violations.Шаблон:Sfn Terwiel reports that among Thai Buddhists, the fourth precept is also seen to be broken when people insinuate, exaggerate or speak abusively or deceitfully.Шаблон:Sfn

Fifth precept

Textual analysis

Glass of red wine
The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means.Шаблон:Sfn

The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means, and its virtues are mindfulness and responsibility,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn applied to food, work, behavior, and with regard to the nature of life.Шаблон:Sfn Awareness, meditation and heedfulness can also be included here.Шаблон:Sfn Medieval Pāli commentator Buddhaghosa writes that whereas violating the first four precepts may be more or less blamable depending on the person or animal affected, the fifth precept is always "greatly blamable", as it hinders one from understanding the Buddha's teaching and may lead one to "madness".Шаблон:Sfn In ancient China, Daoshi described alcohol as the "doorway to laxity and idleness" and as a cause of suffering. Nevertheless, he did describe certain cases when drinking was considered less of a problem, such as in the case of a queen distracting the king by alcohol to prevent him from murder. However, Daoshi was generally strict in his interpretations: for example, he allowed medicinal use of alcohol only in extreme cases.Шаблон:Sfn Early Chinese translations of the Tripitaka describe negative consequences for people breaking the fifth precept, for themselves and their families. The Chinese translation of the Upāsikaśila Sūtra, as well as the Pāli version of the Sigālovāda Sutta, speak of ill consequences such as loss of wealth, ill health, a bad reputation and "stupidity", concluding in a rebirth in hell.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn The Dīrghāgama adds to that that alcohol leads to quarreling, negative states of mind and damage to one's intelligence. The Mahāyāna Brahmajāla SūtraШаблон:Refn describes the dangers of alcohol in very strong terms, including the selling of alcohol.Шаблон:Sfn Similar arguments against alcohol can be found in Nāgārjuna's writings.Шаблон:Sfn The strict interpretation of prohibition of alcohol consumption can be supported by the Upāli Sūtra's statement that a disciple of the Buddha should not drink any alcohol, "even a drop on the point of a blade of grass". However, in the writing of some Abhidharma commentators, consumption was condemned depending on the intention with which alcohol was consumed. An example of an intention which was not condemned is taking alcohol in a small amount as a form of medicine.Шаблон:Sfn

In practice

The fifth precept is regarded as important, because drinking alcohol is condemned for the sluggishness and lack of self-control it leads to,Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn which might lead to breaking the other precepts.Шаблон:Sfn In Spiro's field studies, violating the fifth precept was seen as the worst of all the five precepts by half of the monks interviewed, citing the harmful consequences.Шаблон:Sfn Nevertheless, in practice it is often disregarded by lay people.Шаблон:Sfn In Thailand, drinking alcohol is fairly common, even drunkenness.Шаблон:Sfn Among Tibetans, drinking beer is common, though this is only slightly alcoholic.Шаблон:Sfn Medicinal use of alcohol is generally not frowned upon,Шаблон:Sfn and in some countries like Thailand and Laos, smoking is usually not regarded as a violation of the precept. Thai and Laotian monks have been known to smoke, though monks who have received more training are less likely to smoke.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On a similar note, as of 2000, no Buddhist country prohibited the sale or consumption of alcohol, though in Sri Lanka Buddhist revivalists unsuccessfully attempted to get a full prohibition passed in 1956.Шаблон:Sfn Moreover, pre-Communist Tibet used to prohibit smoking in some areas of the capital. Monks were prohibited from smoking, and the import of tobacco was banned.Шаблон:Sfn

Thich Nhat Hanh also includes mindful consumption in this precept, which consists of unhealthy food, unhealthy entertainment and unhealthy conversations, among others.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn

Present trends

Woman giving a workshop in a classroom
Some scholars have proposed that the five precepts be introduced as a component in mindfulness training programs.

In modern times, adherence to the precepts among Buddhists is less strict than it traditionally was. This is especially true for the third precept. For example, in Cambodia in the 1990s and 2000s, standards with regard to sexual restraint were greatly relaxed.Шаблон:Sfn Some Buddhist movements and communities have tried to go against the modern trend of less strict adherence to the precepts. In Cambodia, a millenarian movement led by Chan Yipon promoted the revival of the five precepts.Шаблон:Sfn And in the 2010s, the Supreme Sangha Council in Thailand ran a nationwide program called "The Villages Practicing the Five Precepts", aiming to encourage keeping the precepts, with an extensive classification and reward system.[11][12]

In many Western Buddhist organizations, the five precepts play a major role in developing ethical guidelines.Шаблон:Sfn Furthermore, Buddhist teachers such as Philip Kapleau, Thich Nhat Hanh and Robert Aitken have promoted mindful consumption in the West, based on the five precepts.Шаблон:Sfn In another development in the West, some scholars working in the field of mindfulness training have proposed that the five precepts be introduced as a component in such trainings. Specifically, to prevent organizations from using mindfulness training to further an economical agenda with harmful results to its employees, the economy or the environment, the precepts could be used as a standardized ethical framework. As of 2015, several training programs made explicit use of the five precepts as secular, ethical guidelines. However, many mindfulness training specialists consider it problematic to teach the five precepts as part of training programs in secular contexts because of their religious origins and import.Шаблон:Sfn

Peace studies scholar Theresa Der-lan Yeh notes that the five precepts address physical, economical, familial and verbal aspects of interaction, and remarks that many conflict prevention programs in schools and communities have integrated the five precepts in their curriculum. On a similar note, peace studies founder Johan Galtung describes the five precepts as the "basic contribution of Buddhism in the creation of peace".Шаблон:Sfn

Theory of ethics

Man of age 82
Peace studies founder Johan Galtung describes the five precepts as the "basic contribution of Buddhism in the creation of peace".Шаблон:Sfn

Studying lay and monastic ethical practice in traditional Buddhist societies, Spiro argued ethical guidelines such as the five precepts are adhered to as a means to a higher end, that is, a better rebirth or enlightenment. He therefore concluded that Buddhist ethical principles like the five precepts are similar to Western utilitarianism.Шаблон:Sfn Keown, however, has argued that the five precepts are regarded as rules that cannot be violated, and therefore may indicate a deontological perspective in Buddhist ethics.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On the other hand, Keown has also suggested that Aristotle's virtue ethics could apply to Buddhist ethics, since the precepts are considered good in themselves, and mutually dependent on other aspects of the Buddhist path of practice.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn Philosopher Christopher Gowans disagrees that Buddhist ethics are deontological, arguing that virtue and consequences are also important in Buddhist ethics. Gowans argues that there is no moral theory in Buddhist ethics that covers all conceivable situations such as when two precepts may be in conflict, but is rather characterized by "a commitment to and nontheoretical grasp of the basic Buddhist moral values".Шаблон:Sfn As of 2017, many scholars of Buddhism no longer think it is useful to try to fit Buddhist ethics into a Western philosophical category.Шаблон:Sfn

Comparison with human rights

Keown has argued that the five precepts are very similar to human rights, with regard to subject matter and with regard to their universal nature.Шаблон:Sfn Other scholars, as well as Buddhist writers and human rights advocates, have drawn similar comparisons.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn For example, the following comparisons are drawn:

  1. Keown compares the first precept with the right to life.Шаблон:Sfn The Buddhism-informed Cambodian Institute for Human Rights (CIHR) draws the same comparison.Шаблон:Sfn
  2. The second precept is compared by Keown and the CIHR with the right of property.Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn
  3. The third precept is compared by Keown to the "right to fidelity in marriage";Шаблон:Sfn the CIHR construes this broadly as "right of individuals and the rights of society".Шаблон:Sfn
  4. The fourth precept is compared by Keown with the "right not to be lied to";Шаблон:Sfn the CIHR writes "the right of human dignity".Шаблон:Sfn
  5. Finally, the fifth precept is compared by the CIHR with the right of individual security and a safe society.Шаблон:Sfn

Keown describes the relationship between Buddhist precepts and human rights as "look[ing] both ways along the juridical relationship, both to what one is due to do, and to what is due to one".Шаблон:SfnШаблон:Sfn On a similar note, Cambodian human rights advocates have argued that for human rights to be fully implemented in society, the strengthening of individual morality must also be addressed.Шаблон:Sfn Buddhist monk and scholar Phra Payutto sees the Human Rights Declaration as an unfolding and detailing of the principles that are found in the five precepts, in which a sense of ownership is given to the individual, to make legitimate claims on one's rights. He believes that human rights should be seen as a part of human development, in which one develops from moral discipline (Шаблон:Lang-pi), to concentration (Шаблон:Lang-pi) and finally wisdom (Шаблон:Lang-pi). He does not believe, however, that human rights are natural rights, but rather human conventions. Buddhism scholar Somparn Promta disagrees with him. He argues that human beings do have natural rights from a Buddhist perspective, and refers to the attūpanāyika-dhamma, a teaching in which the Buddha prescribes a kind of golden rule of comparing oneself with others. (See §Principles, above.) From this discourse, Promta concludes that the Buddha has laid down the five precepts in order to protect individual rights such as right of life and property: human rights are implicit within the five precepts. Academic Buntham Phunsap argues, however, that though human rights are useful in culturally pluralistic societies, they are in fact not required when society is entirely based on the five precepts. Phunsap therefore does not see human rights as part of Buddhist doctrine.Шаблон:Sfn

See also

Notes

Шаблон:Reflist

Citations

Шаблон:Reflist

References

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

External links

Шаблон:Wikiquote

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  1. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  2. ↑ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 Шаблон:Cite book
  3. ↑ 3,0 3,1 Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  4. ↑ Шаблон:Cite webШаблон:Cite webШаблон:Cite bookШаблон:Cite web
  5. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  6. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  7. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  8. ↑ 8,0 8,1 Шаблон:Cite web
  9. ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
  10. ↑ Шаблон:Cite encyclopedia
  11. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
  12. ↑ Шаблон:Cite news
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