Английская Википедия:Flapping

Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Other uses Шаблон:English phonology topics Шаблон:IPA notice Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or t-voicing, is a phonological process involving a voiced alveolar tap or flap; it is found in many varieties of English, especially North American, Cardiff, Ulster, Australian and New Zealand English, where the voiceless alveolar stop consonant phoneme Шаблон:IPAslink is pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap Шаблон:IPA, a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue, when placed between vowels. In London English, the flapped Шаблон:IPAblink is perceived as a casual pronunciation intermediate between the "posh" affricate Шаблон:IPAblink and the "rough" glottal stop Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp In some varieties, Шаблон:IPAslink, the voiced counterpart of Шаблон:IPA, may also be frequently pronounced as a flap in such positions, making pairs of words like latter and ladder sound similar or identical. In similar positions, the combination Шаблон:IPA may be pronounced as a nasalized flap Шаблон:IPAblink, making winter sound similar or identical to winner.

Flapping of Шаблон:IPA is sometimes perceived as the replacement of Шаблон:IPA with Шаблон:IPA; for example, the word butter pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".^[1]

In other dialects of English, such as South African English, Scottish English, some Northern England English (like Scouse), and older varieties of Received Pronunciation, the flap is a variant of Шаблон:IPA (see [[Pronunciation of English /r/|Pronunciation of English Шаблон:IPA]]).Шаблон:Sfnp

Terminology and articulation

The terms flap and tap are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement.Шаблон:Sfnp Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether the process is better called flapping or tapping,Шаблон:Sfnp while flapping has traditionally been more widely used.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Harvcoltxt identify four types of sounds produced in the process: alveolar tap, down-flap, up-flap, and postalveolar tap (found in autumn, Berta, otter, and murder, respectively).Шаблон:Sfnp

In Cockney, another voiced variant of Шаблон:IPA that has been reported to occur to coexist with the alveolar tap (and other allophones, such as the very common glottal stop) is a simple voiced alveolar stop Шаблон:IPAblink, which occurs especially in the words little Шаблон:IPA, hospital Шаблон:IPA and whatever Шаблон:IPA. That too results in a (variable) merger with Шаблон:IPA, whereas the tap does not.Шаблон:Sfnp

In Cardiff English, the alveolar tap is less rapid than the corresponding sound in traditional RP, being more similar to Шаблон:IPA. It also involves a larger part of the tongue. Thus, the typical Cardiff pronunciation of hospital as Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA is quite similar to Cockney Шаблон:IPA, though it does not involve a neutralization of the flap with Шаблон:IPAblink.Шаблон:Sfnp

Distribution

Шаблон:Listen

Flapping of Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is a prominent feature of North American English. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap Шаблон:IPA between a stressed and an unstressed vowel.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp Flapping of Шаблон:IPA also occurs in Australian, New Zealand and (especially Northern) Irish English, and more infrequently or variably in South African English, Cockney, and Received Pronunciation.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp

The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in butter, writing, wedding, loader).Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in get over Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in whatever Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include Шаблон:IPA (as in party)Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp and occasionally Шаблон:IPA (as in faulty).Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp Flapping after Шаблон:IPA is more common in Canadian English than in American English.Шаблон:Sfnp Syllabic Шаблон:IPA may also follow the flap (as in bottle).Шаблон:Sfnp Flapping of Шаблон:IPA before syllabic Шаблон:IPA (as in button) is observed in Australian English,Шаблон:Sfnp while Шаблон:IPA (with nasal release) and Шаблон:IPAblink (t-glottalization) are the only possibilities in North American English.Шаблон:Sfnp

Morpheme-internally, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a reduced one (namely Шаблон:IPA, morpheme-final or prevocalic Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA preceding Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, etc.Шаблон:Efn),Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp so words like botox, retail, and latex are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables,Шаблон:Sfnp while pity, motto, and Keating can be.Шаблон:Sfnp The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having secondary stress.Шаблон:Sfnp

Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in foot-initial positions. This prevents words such as militaristic, spirantization, and Mediterranean from flapping, despite capitalistic and alphabetization, for example, being flapped. This is known as the Withgott effect.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp

In North American English, the cluster Шаблон:IPA (but not Шаблон:IPA) in the same environment as flapped Шаблон:IPA may be realized as a nasal flap Шаблон:IPA. Intervocalic Шаблон:IPA is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like winter and winner can become homophonous.Шаблон:Sfnp According to Шаблон:Harvcoltxt, in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce winter and winner identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing winter with Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA and winner with Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp

Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a phonological rule that accurately predicts flapping.Шаблон:Sfnp Nevertheless, Шаблон:Harvcoltxt postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:

after a sonorant other than Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA, or Шаблон:IPA, but with restrictions on Шаблон:IPA;

before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;

when not in foot-initial position.Шаблон:Sfnp

Exceptions include the preposition/particle to and words derived from it, such as today, tonight, tomorrow, and together, wherein Шаблон:IPA may be flapped when intervocalic (as in go to sleep Шаблон:IPA).Шаблон:Sfnp In Australian English, numerals thirteen, fourteen, and eighteen are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp In a handful of words such as seventy, ninety, and carpenter, Шаблон:IPA is frequently pronounced as Шаблон:IPA, retaining Шаблон:IPA and voicing Шаблон:IPA, although it may still become Шаблон:IPA in rapid speech.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp

Homophony

Flapping is a specific type of lenition, specifically intervocalic weakening. It leads to the neutralization of the distinction between Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA in appropriate environments, a partial merger of the two phonemes, provided that both Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA are flapped.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp Some speakers, however, flap only Шаблон:IPA but not Шаблон:IPA. Yet, for a minority of speakers, the merger can occur only if neither sound is flapped. That is the case in Cockney, where Шаблон:IPA is occasionally voiced to Шаблон:IPAblink, yielding a variable merger of little and Lidl.Шаблон:Sfnp For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:

Homophonous pairs
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	IPA	Notes
aborting	aboarding	Шаблон:IPA
alighted	elided	Шаблон:IPA	With weak vowel merger.
ante	Annie	Шаблон:IPA
anti-	Annie	Шаблон:IPA
at 'em	Adam	Шаблон:IPA
at 'em	add 'em	Шаблон:IPA
atom	Adam	Шаблон:IPA
atom	add 'em	Шаблон:IPA
auntie	Annie	Шаблон:IPA
banter	banner	Шаблон:IPA
batter	badder	Шаблон:IPA
batty	baddie	Шаблон:IPA
beating	beading	Шаблон:IPA
Bertie	birdie	Шаблон:IPA	With fern-fir-fur merger.
Bertie	Birdy; Birdie	Шаблон:IPA	With fern-fir-fur merger.
betting	bedding	Шаблон:IPA
biting	biding	Шаблон:IPA
bitter	bidder	Шаблон:IPA
bitting	bidding	Шаблон:IPA
bitty	biddy	Шаблон:IPA
blatter	bladder	Шаблон:IPA
bleating	bleeding	Шаблон:IPA
boating	boding	Шаблон:IPA
bruter	brooder	Шаблон:IPA	With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA.
butting	budding	Шаблон:IPA
butty	buddy	Шаблон:IPA
canter	canner	Шаблон:IPA
canton	cannon	Шаблон:IPA
canton	canon	Шаблон:IPA
carting	carding	Шаблон:IPA
catty	caddy	Шаблон:IPA
centre; center	sinner	Шаблон:IPA	With pen–pin merger.
chanting	Channing	Шаблон:IPA
cited	sided	Шаблон:IPA
citer	cider	Шаблон:IPA
clotting	clodding	Шаблон:IPA
coating	coding	Шаблон:IPA
courting	chording	Шаблон:IPA
courting	cording	Шаблон:IPA
cuttle	cuddle	Шаблон:IPA
cutty	cuddy	Шаблон:IPA
daughter	dodder	Шаблон:IPA	With cot-caught merger.
daunting	dawning	Шаблон:IPA
daunting	donning	Шаблон:IPA	With cot-caught merger.
debtor	deader	Шаблон:IPA
diluted	deluded	Шаблон:IPA
don't it	doughnut	Шаблон:IPA	With weak vowel merger and toe-tow merger.
dotter	dodder	Шаблон:IPA
doughty	dowdy	Шаблон:IPA
eluted	alluded	Шаблон:IPA	With weak vowel merger.
eluted	eluded	Шаблон:IPA
enter	in a	Шаблон:IPA	In non-rhotic accents with pen-pin merger.
enter	inner	Шаблон:IPA	With pen-pin merger.
eta	Ada	Шаблон:IPA
fated	faded	Шаблон:IPA
flutter	flooder	Шаблон:IPA
fontal	faunal	Шаблон:IPA	With cot-caught merger.
futile	feudal	Шаблон:IPA	With weak vowel merger.
garter	guarder	Шаблон:IPA
gaunter	goner	Шаблон:IPA	With cot-caught merger.
goated	goaded	Шаблон:IPA
grater	grader	Шаблон:IPA
greater	grader	Шаблон:IPA
gritted	gridded	Шаблон:IPA
gritty	Griddy	Шаблон:IPA
hearty	hardy	Шаблон:IPA
heated	heeded	Шаблон:IPA	With meet-meat merger.
Hetty; Hettie	heady	Шаблон:IPA
hurting	herding	Шаблон:IPA	With fern-fir-fur merger.
inter-	in a	Шаблон:IPA	In non-rhotic accents.
inter-	inner	Шаблон:IPA
iter	eider	Шаблон:IPA
jaunty	Johnny	Шаблон:IPA	With cot-caught merger.
jointing	joining	Шаблон:IPA
kitted	kidded	Шаблон:IPA
kitty	kiddie	Шаблон:IPA
knotted	nodded	Шаблон:IPA
latter	ladder	Шаблон:IPA
lauded	lotted	Шаблон:IPA	With cot-caught merger.
linty	Lenny	Шаблон:IPA	With pen-pin merger.
liter	leader	Шаблон:IPA	With meet-meat merger.
little	Lidl	Шаблон:IPA
looter	lewder	Шаблон:IPA	With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA.
manta	manna	Шаблон:IPA
manta	manner	Шаблон:IPA	In non-rhotic accents.
manta	manor	Шаблон:IPA	In non-rhotic accents.
Marty	Mardi	Шаблон:IPA	In the term Mardi Gras.
matter	madder	Шаблон:IPA
mattocks	Maddox	Шаблон:IPA
meant it	minute	Шаблон:IPA	With pen–pin merger.
metal	medal	Шаблон:IPA
metal	meddle	Шаблон:IPA
mettle	medal	Шаблон:IPA
mettle	meddle	Шаблон:IPA
minty	many	Шаблон:IPA	With pen–pin merger.
minty	mini	Шаблон:IPA
minty	Minnie	Шаблон:IPA
motile	modal	Шаблон:IPA	With weak vowel merger.
mottle	model	Шаблон:IPA
mutter	mudder	Шаблон:IPA
neater	kneader	Шаблон:IPA
neuter	nuder	Шаблон:IPA
nighter	nidor	Шаблон:IPA
nitre; niter	nidor	Шаблон:IPA
noted	noded	Шаблон:IPA
oater	odour; odor	Шаблон:IPA
otter	odder	Шаблон:IPA
painting	paining	Шаблон:IPA
panting	panning	Шаблон:IPA
parity	parody	Шаблон:IPA	With weak vowel merger
patter	padder	Шаблон:IPA
patting	padding	Шаблон:IPA
patty	paddy	Шаблон:IPA
petal	pedal	Шаблон:IPA
petal	peddle	Шаблон:IPA
pettle	pedal	Шаблон:IPA
pettle	peddle	Шаблон:IPA
platted	plaided	Шаблон:IPA
planting	planning	Шаблон:IPA
pleating	pleading	Шаблон:IPA
plenty	Pliny	Шаблон:IPA	With pen–pin merger.
plotting	plodding	Шаблон:IPA
potted	podded	Шаблон:IPA
pouter	powder	Шаблон:IPA
punting	punning	Шаблон:IPA
putting	pudding	Шаблон:IPA
rated	raided	Шаблон:IPA	With pane-pain merger.
rattle	raddle	Шаблон:IPA
righting	riding	Шаблон:IPA
roti	roadie	Шаблон:IPA
rooter	ruder	Шаблон:IPA	With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA.
rotting	rodding	Шаблон:IPA
router	ruder	Шаблон:IPA	With yod-dropping after Шаблон:IPA.
runty	runny	Шаблон:IPA
rutty	ruddy	Шаблон:IPA
sainting	seining	Шаблон:IPA
Saturday	sadder day	Шаблон:IPA
satyr	Seder	Шаблон:IPA
saunter	sauna	Шаблон:IPA	In non-rhotic accents.
scented	synod	Шаблон:IPA	With pen-pin merger.
scenting	sinning	Шаблон:IPA	With pen-pin merger.
seating	seeding	Шаблон:IPA	With meet-meat merger.
sent it	senate	Шаблон:IPA
set it	said it	Шаблон:IPA
shunting	shunning	Шаблон:IPA
shutter	shudder	Шаблон:IPA
sighted	sided	Шаблон:IPA
sighter	cider	Шаблон:IPA
sinter	sinner	Шаблон:IPA
sited	sided	Шаблон:IPA
skitting	skidding	Шаблон:IPA
sorted	sordid	Шаблон:IPA
slighting	sliding	Шаблон:IPA
stunting	stunning	Шаблон:IPA
tarty	tardy	Шаблон:IPA
tenter	tenner	Шаблон:IPA
tenter	tenor	Шаблон:IPA
tenting	tinning	Шаблон:IPA	With pen-pin merger.
title	tidal	Шаблон:IPA
toting	toading	Шаблон:IPA
traitor	trader	Шаблон:IPA	With pane-pain merger.
tutor	Tudor	Шаблон:IPA
tweeted	tweeded	Шаблон:IPA
utter	udder	Шаблон:IPA
waiter	wader	Шаблон:IPA	With pane-pain merger.
wattle	waddle	Шаблон:IPA
weighted	waded	Шаблон:IPA	With pane-pain merger.
wetting	wedding	Шаблон:IPA
winter	winner	Шаблон:IPA
wheated	weeded	Шаблон:IPA	With wine-whine merger.
whiter	wider	Шаблон:IPA	With wine–whine merger.
writing	riding	Шаблон:IPA

In accents characterized by Canadian raising, such words as riding and writing may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: riding Шаблон:IPA, writing Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before Шаблон:IPA than before Шаблон:IPA, due to pre-fortis clipping.Шаблон:Sfnp

Withgott effect

In a dissertation in 1982, M.M. Withgott demonstrated that, among speakers of American English, words seem to be chunked into pronunciation units she referred to as a foot, similar to a metrical unit in poetry. Such chunking was said to block flapping in the word ‘Mediterranean’ ([[Medi[terranean] ], cf. [ [sub[terranean]]). How a word is chunked relates to its morphological derivation, as seen by contrasting morphologically similar pairs such as the following (where the vertical bar shows where Withgott argued there is boundary between neighboring feet):

Initial-type t		vs.	flapped-t
military	[ˈmɪlɨ \| tʰɛɹi]	vs.	capital	[ˈkʰæpɨɾl̩]
militaristic	[ˌmɪlɨ \| tʰəˈɹɪstɪk]	vs.	capitalistic	[ˌkʰæpɨɾə \| ˈlɪstɪk]

The medial t in càpitalístic can be flapped as easily as in post-stress cátty [ˈkʰæɾi], in contrast to the medial t in mìlitarístic, which comes at the beginning of a foot, and so must be pronounced as [tʰ], like a t at the beginning of a word.

Long, seemingly monomorphemic words also are chunked in English for purposes of pronunciation. In such words [t]’s — as well as the other unvoiced stops — are pronounced like initial segments whenever they receive secondary stress or are at the beginning of a foot:

Navra tilóva

Abra cadábra

Ala kazám

Rázz matàzz

But:

Fliberti gibety

Humu humu nuku nuku apu a‘a

T-to-R rule

The origins of the T-to-R rule lie in the flapping of Шаблон:IPA and the subsequent reinterpretation of the flap as Шаблон:IPA, which was then followed by the use of the prevailing variant of Шаблон:IPA, namely the approximant Шаблон:IPAblink. It is applied in Northern England English and it is always stigmatized. The application of that rule means that shut in the phrasal verb to shut up Шаблон:IPA has a different phonemic form than the citation form of the verb to shut Шаблон:IPA. The rule is typically not applied in the word-internal position.Шаблон:Sfnp

The T-to-R rule has also been reported to occur in the Cardiff dialect (where the merged consonant can surface as either an approximant or a flap) and South African English (where only a flap is possible). In the Cardiff dialect, the rule is typically applied between any vowel (including long vowels) and Шаблон:IPA or the reduced Шаблон:IPA (also across word boundaries), so that starting Шаблон:IPA and starring Шаблон:IPA can be homophonous as Шаблон:IPA. In South African English, the merger is possible only for those speakers who use the flapped allophone of Шаблон:IPA (making the starting–starring minimal pair homophonous as Шаблон:IPA), otherwise the sounds are distinguished as a flap (or a voiceless stop) for Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA) vs. approximant for Шаблон:IPA (Шаблон:IPA). There, the merger occurs word-internally between vowels in those environments where flapping is possible in North American English.Шаблон:Sfnp Шаблон:Sfnp

Homophonous pairs
Шаблон:IPA	Шаблон:IPA	IPA	Notes
battle	barrel	Шаблон:IPA
batty	Barrie	Шаблон:IPA
batty	Barry	Шаблон:IPA
betty	berry	Шаблон:IPA
but a	borough	Шаблон:IPA	In Cardiff English. But has an alternative form Шаблон:IPA, with an elided Шаблон:IPA.Шаблон:Sfnp
butter	borough	Шаблон:IPA
catty	carry	Шаблон:IPA
catty	kar(r)ee	Шаблон:IPA
daughter	Dora	Шаблон:IPA
Fetty	ferry	Шаблон:IPA
hotter	horror	Шаблон:IPA
jetty	jerry	Шаблон:IPA
Lottie	lorry	Шаблон:IPA
matty	marry	Шаблон:IPA
otter	horror	Шаблон:IPA	With h-dropping.
petty	Perry	Шаблон:IPA
starting	starring	Шаблон:IPA
tarty	tarry	Шаблон:IPA	Tarry in the sense "resembling tar".

Notes

Шаблон:Notelist

References

Шаблон:Reflist

Bibliography

Шаблон:Refbegin

Шаблон:Refend

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Английская Википедия:Flapping

Содержание

Terminology and articulation

Distribution

Homophony

Withgott effect

T-to-R rule

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

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