Английская Википедия:Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Politics of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe maintains relations with various countries around the world, and maintains close diplomatic relations with neighboring nations.
Bilateral relationships
Zimbabwe has significant bilateral relations with several countries.
Following Ian Smith's Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom in 1965 Rhodesia's diplomatic presence was dramatically rolled back across the world. By the time of the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979 Rhodesia only had representative offices in London, Bonn, Pretoria, Sydney, Washington, D.C. and Tokyo. Missions in Maputo (then Lourenço Marques) and Lisbon were closed in 1975 following the Carnation Revolution in Portugal. Under Robert Mugabe Zimbabwe ran a new foreign policy which operated more closely with African, Soviet and NAM states.
Some white Rhodesians who have left their country following ZANU-PF coming to power have established "embassies" and offices representing a government in exile in places afar as Thailand, Iceland and London.
The capital of the country, Harare, currently hosts 51 embassies. Several other countries have ambassadors accredited from other capital cities, mainly Pretoria and Addis Ababa. Several countries have closed their embassies in Zimbabwe in recent years to protest the policies of President Robert Mugabe, with the Czech Republic and Botswana being the latest to announce their intentions to do so.[1][2] The information provided on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Zimbabwe's website is outdated, and due to the country's growing isolation, several embassies that are listed have closed. The information was checked on the websites of other foreign ministries to ensure accuracy.
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Zimbabwe maintains diplomatic relations with:
Bilateral relations
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | See Angola–Zimbabwe relations
Angola-Zimbabwe relations have remained cordial since the birth of both states, Angola in 1975 and Zimbabwe in 1980, during the Cold War. While Angola's foreign policy shifted to a pro-U.S. stance based on substantial economic ties, under the rule of President Robert Mugabe Zimbabwe's ties with the West soured in the late 1990s.
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| Шаблон:Flag | 30 May 1983[136] |
Though initially friendly towards Zimbabwe, several disputes between the two countries have soured relations in recent years. Such problems include the fact that Botswana has seen an influx of refugees from Zimbabwe; the building of a fence along the border,[137] and has complained on several occasions of a campaign by Zimbabwe's state-run media against the government of Botswana, where it cites claims of human rights abuses against Zimbabwean's and the claim that Botswana, along with the United Kingdom and other countries were supporting the opposition in Zimbabwe.[138] Recently, relations have further been strained when the government of Botswana lodged a protest against the political violence occurring in Zimbabwe and the detention of opposition members in the country, stating it was "uncalled for".[139][140] Protesting the outcome of the Zimbabwean presidential election of 2008, and the 'illegitimate' regime in Zimbabwe, President Ian Khama boycotted the Southern African Development Community (SADC) summit on 16–17 August, which was instead attended by the Botswana Foreign Minister.[141] Relations have further deteriorated between Zimbabwe, Botswana and Zambia after the latter two countries withdrew from a Memorandum of Understanding, excluding Zimbabwe and signed a new one to undertake the construction of the Kazungula Bridge Project on a bilateral basis. This was done despite a caution from the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NPAD) to not let politics interfere with the development project.[142] In November 2008, Botswana foreign minister Phandu Skelemani stated that all countries bordering Zimbabwe should close their borders with the country, to 'bring down Robert Mugabe's government'.[143]
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| Шаблон:Flag | See Kenya–Zimbabwe relations
Following the controversial Zimbabwean presidential election of 2008, Kenyan Prime Minister Raila Odinga urged the African Union to suspend Zimbabwe until "free and fair elections" have taken place.[144] He has also called for the removal of Mugabe.[145]
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In the past Zimbabwe has enjoyed a close relationship with the government of Muammar Gaddafi partly due to their shared animosity towards Western governments. During the 2011 Libyan civil war the Mugabe regime indicated that it will not recognise the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council. When the staff of the Libyan embassy defected and joined the NTC after the decisive Battle of Tripoli in August 2011 Harare expelled the embassy, giving them 48 hours to leave the country.[146][147]
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| Шаблон:Flag | See Namibia–Zimbabwe relations
The ruling parties of Namibia (since independence in 1990) and Zimbabwe (since independence in 1980) have been close since pre-independence days, as both were anti-colonial movements against white-minority governments.[148]
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| Шаблон:Flag | See South Africa–Zimbabwe relations
In recent years, following the political crisis in the country, the ex-president Thabo Mbeki mediated with the MDC and Zanu PF to form a unity government, and often remained silent on the issues in Zimbabwe, which drew criticism.[149] Following a cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe, the ruling ANC in South Africa became impatient and has urged the parties to form a unity government.[150] | |
| Шаблон:Flag | 30 April 1980 | See Zambia–Zimbabwe relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 April 1980.[151] Initially, the two countries had good relations after gaining independence. However, relations have recently been strained as Zambia, like Botswana, has reported similar 'smear campaigns' against the Zambian government by Zimbabwe's state-owned media, claiming it was "hired by Britain to press for a speedy regime change in Harare." The foreign affairs minister, Kabinga Pande, has said it has lodged a protest against Zimbabwe, against the "sustained malicious campaign against Zambia."[152] Following the controversial Zimbabwean presidential election of 2008, Zambian President Levy Mwanawasa described Mugabe's Zimbabwe as a "regional embarrassment".[153]
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Americas
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | 15 March 1985 | Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 March 1985[154]
Relations were strained in the 1980s when the government of Robert Mugabe very publicly supported the British position on the Falklands War.[155][156] |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1980 |
Because of Zimbabwe's poor record on human rights and democracy, Canada has imposed sanctions on Zimbabwe which include aid suspension and visa-ban to some members of the Harare government. Bilateral trade totalled C$16 million in 2011, down from C$430 million in 1999. Canadian investment in Zimbabwe is primarily in the mining sector.[157] |
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| Шаблон:Flag | March 1985 | See Mexico–Zimbabwe relationsindia or Bharat and Zimbabwe established diplomatic relations in March 1985. Mexico opened an embassy in Harare in 1990, however, the embassy was later closed in 1994.[158] |
| Шаблон:Flag | 18 April 1980[161] |
See United States–Zimbabwe relations U.S. President Jimmy Carter met with Zimbabwean Prime Minister Robert Mugabe in August 1980.[162] Author Geoff Hill criticized Carter for keeping "quiet as Mugabe nationalized the press, committed genocide against minority tribes and subverted [Zimbabwe's] constitution to make himself the sole source of authority."[163] Zimbabwean Foreign Minister Simbarashe Mumbengegwi summoned U.S. Ambassador to Zimbabwe Christopher Dell on 9 November 2005 and expressed his "extreme displeasure" with comments Dell made a few days earlier in Mutare. Dell had said government corruption had led to food shortages. Mugabe said Dell could "go to hell."[164] Dell left Zimbabwe for Washington, D.C., United States on 9 November for consultations after meeting with Minister Mumbengegwi.[165]
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Asia
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | 1980-04-18 | See China–Zimbabwe relations
The People's Republic of China supported Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union while the Soviet Union supported Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union, competing militant Marxist organizations that sought an end to Rhodesia and the establishment of a one-party Communist state in its place.[166] The PRC's initial investment in Mugabe has continued. China has invested more in Zimbabwe than any other nation with 35 companies spending over $600 million USD.[167] The close economic relationship between Zimbabwe and China is partly driven by sanctions imposed by Western nations in response to the Zimbabwean government's continued human rights abuses.[168] Li Ke, China's Vice-Minister for Economic Relations, visited Zimbabwe for 13 days in September 1980. Mugabe visited China on 13 October and met with Prime Minister Zhao Ziyang.[169] In June or July 2006, the Zimbabwean government secretly bought Chinese rifles, bullets, anti-riot gear and other military equipment in return for 30 tons of ivory, violating the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species which forbids the sale of ivory. Interpol and CITES, an ivory-watchdog organization, are investigating the sale.[170] The Zimbabwean government bought six military aircraft from China in 2005 and another six aircraft from three Chinese firms on 23 August 2006.[171] Two days later the Zimbabwe National Army said it bought 127 trucks for $1.2 million.[172] The Chinese government donated farm machinery worth $25 million to Zimbabwe on 21 April, including 424 tractors and 50 trucks, as part of a $58 million loan to the Zimbabwean government. The Mugabe administration previously seized white-owned farms and gave them to blacks, damaging machinery in the process. In return for the equipment and the loan the Zimbabwean government will ship 30 million kilograms of tobacco to the People's Republic of China immediately and as much as 80 million kilograms over the next five years.[168] John Nkomo, Speaker of the House of Assembly of Zimbabwe, praised China's investment on 24 April 2007 during a state dinner in Harare held during the four-day visit of Jia Qinglin, Chairman of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, to Zimbabwe.[167] Misheck Sibanda, the Chief Secretary to the President and Cabinet, Edna Madzongwe, President of the Senate, cabinet ministers, and legislators from both ZANU-PF and the Movement for Democratic Change attended the dinner.[173] |
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| Шаблон:Flag | 1993 | See Israel–Zimbabwe relations
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| Шаблон:Flag | See Pakistan–Zimbabwe relations
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| Шаблон:Flag | 2 July 1982[174] | See Turkey–Zimbabwe relations |
Europe
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | ||
| Шаблон:Flag | 18 April 1980[178] |
Upon taking power in 1980, Mugabe was "sharply critical" of French president Valery Giscard d'Estaing, said that he hoped their next president François Mitterrand would be better.[179] In 1986, at a meeting of the Non-Aligned Movement in Harare, Mugabe said "France has been involved in many acts of aggression against African countries... We have seen France supporting regimes which are not democratic, which do not respect human rights... We cannot accept any attempt by France to interfere in our internal affairs."[180] Throughout the 1980s Mugabe was critical of France's role in supporting Hissene Habre, the former dictator of Chad who was accused of human rights abuses. Mugabe also criticized France's nuclear testing program in the South Pacific, which had been ongoing since the 1960s. In 1985, he spoke out against French nuclear testing during a speech at the United Nations General Assembly, calling it a "crime against humanity." Additionally, Mugabe accused France of supporting the apartheid government in South Africa by continuing to trade with them despite international sanctions. He called for a boycott of French goods and services in protest. In the 1990s relations between France and Zimbabwe were very cold due Robert Mugabe's support for Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy during the Djiboutian Civil War, which placed Zimbabwe on the opposite side of the conflict than France. Throughout the early 1990s there was somewhat of a diplomatic spat between members of the Zimbabwean government and members of the French government. In one of the rare instances of Mugabe showing solidarity with the United States, he said he felt like the Americans had "sided with (Zimbabwe)" in the "spat with France" during the summer of 1991. Several members of Mugabe's government, including Witness Mangwende, Victoria Chitepo, Stan Mudenge and Nicholas Goche all echoed these sentiments.[181][182] French President Jacques Chirac angered the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States when in February 2003 he invited President Mugabe to a Franco-African conference on Africa held in France. Mugabe said he felt "at home" in Paris and "President Chirac insisted that we attend. He held firm to his principles. We need leaders of his stature." Chirac later emphasized that he had not kissed Mugabe on his cheeks when the conference began.[183] The UK had previously tried to get the European Union to deny Mugabe the right to come to Europe, citing human rights abuses in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwean opposition leader Morgan Tsvangirai said it was "a slap in the face for the French Government or any government in Europe to be accommodating him."[184][185] Ministers were said to be "furious" at the prospect of Grace Mugabe, the President's wife, returning to the stricken country with "crates of luxury goods" while Zimbabwe was in the middle of a self-inflicted crisis that resulted in mass starvation. A British minister remarked "The thought of Mugabe gorging himself on French food while his people starve is morally repugnant." The French government paid for Robert and Grace Mugabe to stay at the five-star Plaza Athénée Hotel.[186] About the meeting the U.S. publication the Washington Post wrote: "Who would be irresponsible enough to lend legitimacy to Mugabe, a man whose brutal land-seizure tactics have reduced much of Zimbabwe to starvation? But you have probably guessed the answer: It is that friend of liberty, fraternity and equality -- the president of France."[187]
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| Шаблон:Flag | 18 April 1980[188] |
German Chancellor Helmut Kohl had notoriously bad relations with the Zimbabwean government throughout the 1980s and most of the 1990s. While this was not due to any personal animosity between Kohl and Mugabe, it was rather due to an "indifference to the region" on the part of Kohl which led to Zimbabwean diplomats consistently viewing the German government as "cold and uncaring." As of 2018, the German government stated they remained "hesitant" to begin "cooperation with Zimbabwe."[189] German Chancellor Angela Merkel controversially stated that "Zimbabwe damages Africa's image."[190]
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| Шаблон:Flag | 13 August 1980 | See Greece–Zimbabwe relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 August 1980[32]
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| Шаблон:Flag | 1981 | See Poland–Zimbabwe relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1981-02-18 | See Russia–Zimbabwe relations
Russia-Zimbabwe relations date back to January 1979, during the Rhodesian Bush War. The Soviet Union supported Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union, and supplied them with arms; Robert Mugabe's attempts to gain Soviet support for his Zimbabwe African National Union were rebuffed, leading him to enter into relations with Soviet rival Beijing. Throughout the 1980s Zimbabwean relations with the USSR were notoriously cold. Mugabe "stonewalled" the Soviets "for ten months" rather than establish relations with them while he was establishing relations with other countries including the United Kingdom and the United States. The agreement the Soviets were forced to agree to demanded they meet strict criteria about how they could operate in Zimbabwe, while no other country had to agree to similar concessions before establishing relations. The agreement was described as "embarrassing and humiliating for the Soviets since it singles them out."[191] Mugabe shunned Russian help and allowed British military bases to be established in Zimbabwe against Russian protests, while also accepting the help of British military advisers and declining the same offers from the Soviet Union. Several American-made movies were aired in Zimbabwean movie theaters in the 1980s that the Soviets believed constituted "anti-Soviet propaganda," including the movies Invasion U.S.A., Red Dawn, Firefox, Rocky IV, Rambo: First Blood Part II, Water, The Living Daylights, The Whistle Blower, and Rambo III. The Soviet embassy officially protested, however, they were allegedly told by Mugabe "to complain to your ZIPRA friends."[192][193] During a speech in Pakistan, Mugabe outspokenly opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and compared the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan with apartheid in South Africa, Jay Ross of the Washington Post referred to this as "about as harsh a criticism of Moscow as an African leader could make."[194] Mugabe condemned the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan throughout the 1980s.[195] However, since the 2000s Robert Mugabe had strengthened his relations with both Beijing and Moscow as a result of intense western pressure on him. Zimbabwe was one of the few countries that voted with Russia on United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262 about the annexation of Crimea.[196][197][198] Russia maintains strong economic and political ties with Zimbabwe. |
| Шаблон:Flag | 18 April 1980[178] | See United Kingdom–Zimbabwe relations
Historically, relations between Zimbabwe and the United Kingdom were close. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was instrumental in the transition to majority rule and independence, and throughout the 1980s she proved to be a close friend of Zimbabwe. Robert Mugabe very publicly sided with Britain and Margaret Thatcher on the issue of the Falklands War.[155] In the early 1990s John Major had a friendly working relationship with Robert Mugabe and both visited Zimbabwe and also invited Robert Mugabe to the United Kingdom.[199] Throughout the 1980s Mugabe shunned help from the Soviet Union and allowed British military bases to be established in Zimbabwe against Russian protests, while also accepting the help of British military advisers and declining the same offers from the Soviet Union. He allowed Britain to maintain military bases in the country. Throughout the 1980s Mugabe described himself as "an Anglophile" and was frequently seen to wear British-made Savile Row suits.[200] Mugabe also heavily promoted cricket in Zimbabwe, saying "Cricket civilizes people and creates good gentlemen," he declared. "I want everyone to play cricket in Zimbabwe. I want ours to be a nation of gentlemen."[201] After independence Zimbabwe remained a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Mugabe also formed a "genuine friendship" and political alliance with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. When members of Mugabe's cabinet celebrated Margaret Thatcher's removal from office in 1990, Mugabe rebuked them, reportedly saying: "Who organised our independence? Let me tell you – if it hadn't been for Mrs Thatcher none of you would be here today. I'm sorry she's gone."[200][202] In 1991 Zimbabwe hosted the 1991 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting where the commonwealth issued the Harare Declaration. Diana, Princess of Wales visited Mr Mugabe in Harare in 1993. Mugabe was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994.[203] The England cricket team played Zimbabwe in Harare in 1996 in a match attended by Mugabe. However, between 1998 and 2017, relations between Zimbabwe and the UK had been typically cold; with President Robert Mugabe frequently accusing the former colonial power of sabotage; ruining the country and attempting to invade the country.[204] In turn, UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown refused to attend an African/European summit while Mugabe was invited, citing Zimbabwe's poor human rights record.[205] The UK also did not attend an address by Mugabe at the 2008 UN Food Summit, stating that his presence there was "obscene".[206] However, Mugabe was later forcibly removed from power in November 2017 and soon afterwards, Britain's Minister to Africa Rory Stewart became the first British Minister to visit Zimbabwe in two decades.[207] In January 2019, Conservative Secretary and defence spokesman Geoffrey Van Orden MEP said that the EU should review its sanctions against Zimbabwe following the brutal crackdown on opposition forces.[208] When Queen Elizabeth II passed away Zimbabwe's government, including President Emmerson Mnangagwa, publicly expressed solidarity with the British public. President Emerson Mnangagwa signed the book of condolences at the British Embassy and issued a statement saying "it was an honour to sign the condolence book for the late Queen Elizabeth II." Livit Mugejo, the spokesman for foreign affairs of the Zimbabwean government read a statement saying that the Zimbabwean government "take this opportunity to express heartfelt condolences to the family of Her Majesty the Queen and the people of the United Kingdom. Her death is a loss not only to her family, and the British people, but also to the entire world." President Mnangagwa was invited to Queen Elizabeth's funeral, at the funeral Zimbabwe was represented by Foreign Affairs Minister Frederick Shava.[209][210][211] The British government's HALO Trust and the British army work extensively in demining operations in Zimbabwe through cooperation with the Zimbabwean government. As of early 2023, British efforts to assist in demining in northeast Zimbabwe are on track to lead to an entirely mine-free Zimbabwe by 2025.[212][213][214][215]
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Oceania
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | 18 April 1980[216] | See Australia–Zimbabwe relations
In 2002, the Howard government in Australia imposed targeted sanctions against members of the Zimbabwean government in protest against the deteriorating political situation in Zimbabwe. The sanctions were extended and strengthened in 2007.[217] These sanctions have included restrictions on travel to and through Australia for certain members of the Zimbabwean government, suspension of all non-humanitarian aid, and prohibitions on defence links.[218] The Rudd government in 2008 considered further sanctions against Zimbabwe, with foreign minister Stephen Smith declaring that "I've made it clear that we are open to consider more sanctions ... We are currently giving active consideration to that issue."[219] |
Multilateral organizations
Zimbabwe has missions to several multilateral organizations:
- Addis Ababa (Permanent Mission to the African Union)
- Brussels (Mission to the European Union)
- Geneva (Permanent Mission to the United Nations and international organizations)
- New York City (Permanent Mission to the United Nations)
- Paris (Permanent Mission to UNESCO)
Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth of Nations
Zimbabwe became an independent republic in the Commonwealth of Nations on 18 April 1980. Zimbabwe withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations in December 2003, due to international criticism of the Government of Zimbabwe's human rights record.
Emmerson Mnangagwa, Robert Mugabe's successor as President of Zimbabwe, has stated that Zimbabwe will apply to return to the Commonwealth in late 2018, following in the footsteps of The Gambia returning to the Commonwealth on 8 February 2018.
Sibusiso Moyo attended the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2018 in his capacity as Minister of Foreign Affairs.
The British Government has expressed support for Zimbabwe to return to its membership of the Commonwealth.[220]
See also
References
Further reading
- Scarnecchia, Timothy. Race and Diplomacy in Zimbabwe: The Cold War and Decolonization, 1960-1984 (Cambridge University Press, 2020) online review
- Schwartz, Richard. Coming to Terms: Zimbabwe in the International Arena I. B. Tauris.
Шаблон:Foreign relations of the Commonwealth of Nations Шаблон:Foreign relations of Zimbabwe Шаблон:Africa in topic
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite web
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- ↑ "Mugabe's complicated relationship with France" by France 24: https://www.france24.com/en/20170906-mugabe-complicated-relationship-france-zimbabwe-sanctions-visa-land-reform
- ↑ "Zimbabwe-France Relations: A Diplomatic History" by Munyaradzi Nyakudya (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325319024_Zimbabwe-France_Relations_A_Diplomatic_History)
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- ↑ No Master, No Mortgage, No Sale: The Foreign Policy of Zimbabwe by H. H. Patel pg. 61
- ↑ Africa Film & TV Magazine, Volume 20
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