Английская Википедия:Foreign relations of the United Kingdom
Шаблон:Short description Шаблон:Use British English Шаблон:Use dmy dates Шаблон:Politics of the United Kingdom
The diplomatic foreign relations of the United Kingdom are conducted by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, headed by the Foreign Secretary. The prime minister and numerous other agencies play a role in setting policy, and many institutions and businesses have a voice and a role.
The United Kingdom was the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries, most notably during the so-called "Pax Britannica"Шаблон:Mdasha period of unrivaled supremacy and unprecedented international peace during the mid-to-late 1800s. The country continued to be widely considered a superpower until the Suez crisis of 1956 and the dismantling of the British Empire left the UK's dominant role in global affairs to be gradually diminished. Nevertheless, the United Kingdom remains a great power and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, a founding member of the G7, G20, NATO, AUKUS, OECD, WTO, Council of Europe, OSCE, and the Commonwealth of Nations, the latter being a legacy of the British Empire. The UK had been a member state of the European Union (and a member of its predecessors) since 1973. However, due to the outcome of a 2016 membership referendum, proceedings to withdraw from the EU began in 2017 and concluded when the UK formally left the EU on 31 January 2020, and the transition period on 31 December 2020 with an EU trade agreement. Since the vote and the conclusion of trade talks with the EU, policymakers have begun pursuing new trade agreements with other global partners.
History
Following the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain (which united England and Scotland) in 1707, British foreign relations largely continued those of the Kingdom of England. British foreign policy initially focused on achieving a balance of power within Europe, with no one country achieving dominance over the affairs of the continent. This policy remained a major justification for Britain's wars against Napoleon, and for British involvement in the First and Second World Wars. Secondly Britain continued the expansion of its colonial "First British Empire" by migration and investment.
France was the chief enemy until the defeat of Napoleon in 1815. It had a much larger population and a more powerful army, but a weaker navy. The British were generally successful in their many wars. The notable exception, the American War of Independence (1775–1783), saw Britain, without any major allies, defeated by the American colonials who had the support of France, the Netherlands and (indirectly) Spain. A favoured British diplomatic strategy involved subsidising the armies of continental allies (such as Prussia), thereby turning London's enormous financial power to military advantage. Britain relied heavily on its Royal Navy for security, seeking to keep it the most powerful fleet afloat, eventually with a full complement of bases across the globe. British dominance of the seas was vital to the formation and maintaining of the British Empire, which was achieved through the support of a navy larger than the next two largest navies combined, prior to 1920. The British generally stood alone until the early 20th century, when it became friendly with the U.S. and made alliances with Japan, France and Russia and Germany former antagonist now ally.
1814–1914
The 100 years were generally peaceful--a sort of Pax Britannica enforced by the Royal Navy. There were two important wars, both limited in scope. The Crimean War (1853–1856) saw the defeat of Russia and its threat to the Ottoman Empire. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) saw the defeat of the two Boer republics in South Africa and Boxer Rebellion happen the same year. London became the world's financial centre, and commercial enterprise expanded across the globe. The "Second British Empire" was built with a base in Asia (especially India) and Africa.
First World War
1920s
Шаблон:Main After 1918 Britain was a "troubled giant" that was less of a dominant diplomatic force in the 1920s than before. It often had to give way to the United States, which frequently exercised its financial superiority.[1] The main themes of British foreign policy included a leading role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920, where Lloyd George worked hard to moderate French demands for revenge on Germany.[2] He was partly successful, but Britain soon had to moderate French policy toward Germany further, as in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.[3][4] Furthermore, Britain obtained "mandates" that allowed it and its dominions to govern most of the former German and Ottoman colonies.[5]
Britain became an active member of the new League of Nations, but its list of major achievements was slight.[6][7]
Disarmament was high on the agenda, and Britain played a major role following the United States in the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 in working toward naval disarmament of the major powers. By 1933 disarmament agreements had collapsed and the issue became rearming for a war against Germany.[8]
Britain was partially successful in negotiating better terms with United States regarding the large war loans which Britain was obliged to repay.[9] Britain supported the international solution to German reparations through the Dawes Plan and the Young Plan. After the Dawes Plan had helped stabilize Germany's currency and lowered its annual payments, Germany was able to pay its annual reparations using money borrowed from New York banks, and Britain used the money received to pay Washington.[10] The Great Depression starting in 1929 put enormous pressure on the British economy. Britain revived Imperial Preference, which meant low tariffs within the British Empire and higher barriers to trade with outside countries. The flow of money from New York dried up, and the system of reparations and payment of debt died in 1931.
In domestic British politics, the emerging Labour Party had a distinctive and suspicious foreign policy based on pacifism. Its leaders believed that peace was impossible because of capitalism, secret diplomacy, and the trade in armaments. Labour stressed material factors that ignored the psychological memories of the Great War and the highly emotional tensions regarding nationalism and the boundaries of countries. Nevertheless, party leader Ramsay MacDonald devoted much of his attention to European policies.[11]
1930s
Vivid memories of the horrors and deaths of the First World War inclined many Britons—and their leaders in all parties—to pacifism in the interwar era. This led directly to the appeasement of dictators (notably of Mussolini and of Hitler) in order to avoid their threats of war.[12]
The challenge came from those dictators, first from Benito Mussolini, Duce of Italy, then from Adolf Hitler, Führer of a much more powerful Nazi Germany. The League of Nations proved disappointing to its supporters; it failed to resolve any of the threats posed by the dictators. British policy involved "appeasing" them in the hopes they would be satiated. By 1938 it was clear that war was looming, and that Germany had the world's most powerful military. The final act of appeasement came when Britain and France sacrificed Czechoslovakia to Hitler's demands at the Munich Agreement of September 1938.[13] Instead of satiation, Hitler menaced Poland, and at last Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain dropped appeasement and stood firm in promising to defend Poland (31 March 1939). Hitler however cut a deal with Joseph Stalin to divide Eastern Europe (23 August 1939); when Germany did invade Poland in September 1939, Britain and France declared war, and the British Commonwealth followed London's lead.[14]
Second World War
Шаблон:Further Having signed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in August 1939, Britain and France declared war against Germany in September 1939 in response to Germany's invasion of Poland. This declaration included the Crown colonies and India, which Britain directly controlled. The dominions were independent in foreign policy, though all quickly entered the war against Germany. After the French defeat in June 1940, Britain and its empire stood alone in combat against Germany, until June 1941. The United States gave diplomatic, financial and material support, starting in 1940, especially through Lend Lease, which began in 1941 and attain full strength during 1943. In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and agreed on the Atlantic Charter, which proclaimed "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live" should be respected. This wording was ambiguous and would be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.[15]
Starting in December 1941, Japan overran British possessions in Asia, including Hong Kong, Malaya, and especially the key base at Singapore. Japan then marched into Burma, headed toward India. Churchill's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe, but the rapid defeats irreversibly harmed Britain's standing and prestige as an imperial power. The realisation that Britain could not defend them pushed Australia and New Zealand into permanent close ties with the United States.[16]
Postwar
Economically in dire straits in 1945 (saddled with debt and dealing with widespread destruction of its infrastructure), Britain systematically reduced its overseas commitments. It pursued an alternate role as an active participant in the Cold War against communism, especially as a founding member of NATO in 1949.[17]
The British had built up a very large worldwide Empire, which peaked in size in 1922, after more than half a century of unchallenged global supremacy. The cumulative costs of fighting two world wars, however, placed a heavy burden upon the home economy, and after 1945 the British Empire rapidly began to disintegrate, with all the major colonies gaining independence. By the mid-to-late 1950s, the UK's status as a superpower was gone in the face of the United States and the Soviet Union. Most former colonies joined the "Commonwealth of Nations", an organisation of fully independent nations now with equal status to the UK. However it attempted no major collective policies.[18][19] The last major colony, Hong Kong, was handed over to China in 1997.[20] Fourteen British Overseas Territories maintain a constitutional link to the UK, but are not part of the country per se.[21]
Britain slashed its involvements in the Middle East after the humiliating Suez Crisis of 1956. However Britain did forge close military ties with the United States, France, and Germany, through the NATO military alliance. After years of debate (and rebuffs), Britain joined the Common Market in 1973; which became the European Union in 1993.[22] However it did not merge financially, and kept the pound separate from the Euro, which partly isolated it from the EU financial crisis of 2011.[23] In June 2016, the UK voted to leave the EU.[24][25]
21st century
Foreign policy initiatives of UK governments since the 1990s have included military intervention in conflicts and for peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance programmes and increased aid spending, support for establishment of the International Criminal Court, debt relief for developing countries, prioritisation of initiatives to address climate change, and promotion of free trade.[26] The British approach has been described as "spread the right norms and sustain NATO".[27]
Lunn et al. (2008) argue:[28]
- Three key motifs of Tony Blair's 10-year premiership were an activist philosophy of 'interventionism', maintaining a strong alliance with the US and a commitment to placing Britain at the heart of Europe. While the 'special relationship' and the question of Britain's role in Europe have been central to British foreign policy since the Second World War...interventionism was a genuinely new element.
The GREAT campaign of 2012 was one of the most ambitious national promotion efforts ever undertaken by any major nation. It was scheduled take maximum advantage of the worldwide attention to the Summer Olympics in London. The goals were to make British more culture visible in order to stimulate trade, investment and tourism. The government partnered with key leaders in culture, business, diplomacy and education. The campaign unified many themes and targets, including business meetings; scholarly conventions; recreational vehicle dealers; parks and campgrounds; convention and visitors bureaus; hotels; bed and breakfast inns; casinos; and hotels.[29][30]
In 2013, the government of David Cameron described its approach to foreign policy by saying:[31]
- For any given foreign policy issue, the UK potentially has a range of options for delivering impact in our national interest. ... [W]e have a complex network of alliances and partnerships through which we can work.... These include – besides the EU – the UN and groupings within it, such as the five permanent members of the Security Council (the “P5”); NATO; the Commonwealth; the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development; the G8 and G20 groups of leading industrialised nations; and so on.
The UK began establishing air and naval facilities in the Persian Gulf, located in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Oman in 2014–15.[32][33][34][35] The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 highlighted a range of foreign policy initiatives of the UK government.[36][37] Edward Longinotti notes how current British defence policy is grappling with how to accommodate two major commitments, to Europe and to an ‘east of Suez’ global military strategy, within a modest defence budget that can only fund one. He points out that Britain's December 2014 agreement to open a permanent naval base in Bahrain underlines its gradual re-commitment east of Suez.[38] By some measures, Britain remains the second most powerful country in the world by virtue of its soft power and "logistical capability to deploy, support and sustain [military] forces overseas in large numbers."[39] Although commentators have questioned the need for global power projection,[40] the concept of “Global Britain” put forward by the Conservative government in 2019 signalled more military activity in the Middle East and Pacific, outside of NATO's traditional sphere of influence.[41][42]
At the end of January 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union, with a subsequent trade agreement with the EU in effect from 1 January 2021, setting out the terms of the UK-EU economic relationship and what abilities the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office can use in foreign relations related to trade.
In July 2023, UK and Bahrain signed a memorandum of understanding for strategic investments and collaborations, through Bahraini sovereign wealth fund Mumtalakat, Investcorp, GFH Financial Group, and Osool Asset Management, that would see the Gulf state's private sector invest 1 billion pounds ($1.3 billion) in Britain.[43]
Major international disputes since 1945
| from | to | dispute |
|---|---|---|
| 1946 | 1949 | Involved in Greek Civil War |
| 1945 | 1948 | Administration of the Mandate for Palestine, ending with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. British forces often faced conflict with Arab nationalists and Jewish Zionist militia. |
| 1947 | 1991 | Cold War with Soviet Union |
| 1948 | 1949 | Berlin Blockade – dispute with USSR over access to West Berlin and general Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe[44] |
| 1948 | 1960 | Malayan Emergency – armed conflict against the politically isolated Communist forces of the Malayan National Liberation Army |
| 1950 | 1953 | Korean War – war with North Korea |
| 1951 | 1954 | Abadan Crisis – dispute with Iran over expropriated oil assets |
| 1956 | 1957 | Suez Crisis – armed conflict with Egypt over its seizure of the Suez Canal Zone, and unsupported by most of the international community |
| 1958 | Шаблон:Sort | First Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland |
| 1962 | 1966 | Konfrontasi – war with Indonesia |
| 1972 | 1973 | Second Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland |
| 1975 | 1976 | Third Cod War – fishing dispute with Iceland[45] |
| 1982 | Шаблон:Sort | Falklands War – war with Argentina over the Falkland Islands and other British south Atlantic territories |
| 1983 | Шаблон:Sort | Condemnation of the United States over its invasion of Grenada[46] |
| 1984 | Шаблон:Sort | Dispute with Libya after a policewoman is shot dead in London by a gunman from within the Libyan embassy, and considerable Libyan support for the IRA in Northern Ireland. |
| 1988 | Шаблон:Sort | Dispute with Libya over the 1988 bombing of a Pan Am flight over the Scottish town of Lockerbie[47] |
| 1991 | Шаблон:Sort | Gulf War with Iraq[48] |
| 1995 | Шаблон:Sort | Under UN mandate, military involvement in former Yugoslavia (specifically Bosnia) |
| 1997 | Шаблон:Sort | Hong Kong handover to Chinese rule. Britain secures guarantees for a "special status" that would continue capitalism and protect existing British property.[49] |
| 1999 | Шаблон:Sort | Involvement in NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia over Kosovo |
| 2000 | Шаблон:Sort | British action in saving the UN peacekeeping force from collapse and defeating the anti-government rebellion during the Sierra Leone Civil War |
| 2001 | Шаблон:Sort | UN-sponsored war against, and subsequent occupation of, Afghanistan |
| 2003 | 2007 | Collaboration with US and others in war against, and occupation of, Iraq; over 46,000 British troops subsequently occupy Basra and southern Iraq |
| 2007 | Шаблон:Sort | Diplomatic dispute with Russia over the death of Alexander Litvinenko[50] |
| 2009 | Шаблон:Sort | Dispute with Iran over its alleged nuclear weapons programme, including sanctions and Iranian condemnation of the British government, culminating in a 2011 attack on the British Embassy in Iran |
| 2011 | Шаблон:Sort | Under UN mandate, UK armed forces participated in enforcing the Libyan No-Fly Zone as part of Operation Ellamy[51] |
| 2013 | Шаблон:Sort | Support for French forces in the Malian civil war |
| 2015 | Шаблон:Sort | Support for the US-led coalition against the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant |
| 2016 | Шаблон:Sort | UN and EU implement a deal with Iran intended to prevent the country gaining access to nuclear weapons[52] |
| 2018 | Шаблон:Sort | Sanctions on Russia following the poisoning of Sergei Skripal using a nerve agent in Salisbury, England included the expulsions of 23 diplomats, the largest ever since the Cold War, an act that was retaliated by Russia |
| 2019 | Шаблон:Sort | The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago is disputed between the United Kingdom and Mauritius. An advisory ruling by International Court of Justice in The Hague found that "the islands were not lawfully separated from the former colony of Mauritius",[53] a view endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly |
| 2019 | Шаблон:Sort | The UK seized an Iranian oil tanker in the Strait of Gibraltar on the grounds that it was shipping oil to Syria in violation of European Union sanctions. Iran later captured a British oil tanker and its crew members in the Persian Gulf.[54] |
| 2022 | Шаблон:Sort | The UK provided support and equipment to Ukraine after its invasion by Russia, which declared the United Kingdom an unfriendly country after the UK strongly supported international sanctions against Russia |
Sovereignty disputes
- Spain claims the British overseas territory of Gibraltar.[55] Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain under British sovereignty in 1967 and 2002.
- The entire Chagos Archipelago in the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius. The claim includes the island of Diego Garcia used as a joint UK/US military base since the 1970s when the inhabitants were forcibly removed, Blenheim Reef, Speakers Bank and all the other features.[56]
- There are conflicting claims over the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, controlled by the United Kingdom but claimed by Argentina. The dispute escalated into the Falklands War in 1982 over the islands' sovereignty, in which Argentina was defeated. The Falkland islanders voted overwhelmingly to remain a British Overseas Territory in 2013.
- There is a territorial claim in Antarctica, the British Antarctic Territory, which overlaps with areas claimed by Chile and Argentina.[57]
Commonwealth of Nations
The UK has varied relationships with the countries that make up the Commonwealth of Nations which originated from the British Empire. Charles III of the United Kingdom is Head of the Commonwealth and is King of 15 of its 56 member states. Those that retain the King as head of state are called Commonwealth realms. Over time several countries have been suspended from the Commonwealth for various reasons. Zimbabwe was suspended because of the authoritarian rule of its President.[58]
Diplomatic relations
British diplomatic relations date back to the 13th century.[59][60] The following table lists the date from which diplomatic relations were established with other countries:
Bilateral relations
Africa
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Algeria |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Botswana–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Botswana on 30 September 1966.[118]
The UK governed Botswana from 1885 to 1966, when Botswana achieved independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, as well as the SACUM-UK Economic Partnership Agreement.[199] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Burundi
The UK established diplomatic relations with Burundi on 1 July 1962.[135] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Democratic Republic of the Congo–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 7 July 1960.[130] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Egypt–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Ethiopia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Ethiopia in 1841.[82]
The UK administered Ethiopia from 1941–1942. The UK continued to administered the regions of Ogaden and Haud from 1941, until both territories were relinquished to Ethiopia in 1948 and 1955 respectively. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Guinea
The UK established diplomatic relations with Guinea on 28 May 1959.[129]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Ivory Coast
The UK established diplomatic relations with Ivory Coast on 12 October 1960.[133]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] Both countries are parties of the Ivory Coast-UK Economic Partnership Agreement: a free trade agreement.[209] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Kenya–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Kenya on 12 December 1963.[138]
The UK governed Kenya from 1895 to 1963, when it achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, as well as the Kenya-UK Economic Partnership Agreement.[212] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Liberia–United Kingdom relations
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Sort | See Libya–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Malawi–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Mauritania
The UK established diplomatic relations with Mauritania on 28 November 1960.[134]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Morocco–United Kingdom relations
According to some accounts, in the beginning of the 13th century King John of England (1167–1216) sent an embassy to the Almohad Sultan Muhammad al-Nasir (1199–1213), requesting military support and an alliance against France.[215] At home, King John was faced with a dire situation, in which his Barons revolted against him, he had been excommunicated by the Pope, and France was threatening to invade. The embassy of three was led by Bishop Roger, and King John supposedly offered to convert to Islam and pay a tribute to al-Nasir in exchange for his help. Al-Nasir apparently dismissed the proposal.[216] Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Mozambique |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Namibia–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Rwanda–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Rwanda on 1 July 1962.[118]
Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Senegal
The UK established diplomatic relations with Senegal on 20 June 1960.[118]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Somalia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Somalia on 7 July 1960.[131]
The UK governed Somaliland from 1884–1940 and 1941–1960, Somaliland achieved full independence on 26 June 1960. The UK also administered the remaining territory of modern Somalia from 1941–1950, until it became an Italian Trust Territory. Both of these territories unified on the 1 July 1960 to become Somalia. |
| Шаблон:Flag | N/A | See Somaliland–United Kingdom relations
The UK has not established diplomatic relations with Somaliland; the UK does not recognise Somaliland to be a sovereign nation.
On 4 July 2023, Gavin Williamson proposed a bill to the UK Parliament that would invoke the UK to recognise the Republic of Somaliland.[222] The UK governed Somaliland from 1884–1940 and 1941–1960, Somaliland achieved full independence on 26 June 1960. The Republic of Somaliland declared independence from Somalia on 18 May 1991. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See South Africa–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Sudan–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Sudan on 3 March 1956.[127]
The UK governed Sudan from 1899 to 1956, when Sudan achieved full independence.[226] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Tanzania–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Uganda–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Uganda on 9 October 1962.[136]
Uganda was a possession of the Imperial British East Africa Company from 1888 to 1893, until the IBEAC transferred its administration rights to the British Government. The UK governed Uganda from 1894 to 1962, when Uganda achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth of Nations. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–Zambia relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–Zimbabwe relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980.[142]
Zimbabwe was a possession of the British South Africa Company from 1888 to 1923, until BSAC transferred its administration rights to the British Government. The UK governed Zimbabwe from 1923 to 1980, when Zimbabwe achieved full independence under the Lancaster House Agreement. Both countries are parties of the Eastern and Southern Africa-UK Economic Partnership Agreement: a free trade agreement.[230] |
Asia
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Afghanistan on 22 November 1921.[109] The UK currently recognises the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan government, over the de facto Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan government, as the legal administrator of the country.
The UK governed Afghanistan from 1879–1919, until Afghanistan achieved full independence. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting[232] | See Armenia–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Azerbaijan–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Bahrain–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | N/A | See Foreign relations of Bhutan
The UK has not established diplomatic relations with Bhutan; the UK does recognise Bhutan to be a sovereign nation. Relations between Bhutan and the UK date back to the 18th Century[238] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Brunei–United Kingdom relations
In 1888, Brunei became a British protectorate, gaining its independence from British rule less than 100 years later in 1984. The UK and Brunei have a long-standing and strong bilateral relationship, particularly on defence co-operation, trade and education. The UK continues to play a strong role in developing Brunei's oil and gas sector, and the Brunei Investment Agency is a significant investor in the UK, with their largest overseas operations in the City of London. The UK remains the destination of choice for Bruneian students, with about 1,220 of them enrolled in higher education in the UK in 2006–07. The United Kingdom has a high commission in Bandar Seri Begawan, and Brunei has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Cambodia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Cambodia on 5 May 1952.[125]
The UK broke off diplomatic relations with Cambodia in 1975, following the Fall of Phnom Penh; diplomatic relations were restored in 1991.[241] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See China–United Kingdom relations
Although on opposing sides of the Cold War, both countries were allies during World War II, and are members of the UN and permanent members of the Security Council. But because of the Cold War, First and Second Opium War, and the status of Hong Kong, and other issues, China-UK relations at some points in history have been complicated, but better at other times. In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including United Kingdom, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.[242] |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1992 | See Georgia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Georgia on 27 April 1992.[179]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, and OSCE. The two countries also have a free trade agreement.[245] |
| Шаблон:Flag | N/A | See Hong Kong–United Kingdom relations
The UK established modern diplomatic relations with Hong Kong on 1 July 1997.
Hong Kong was a British colony from 1841–1997, apart from a period of Japanese occupation from 1941–1945. Hong Kong's sovereignty was transferred to the People's Republic of China in 1997. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See India–United Kingdom relations
British India was a former colony of the British Empire. India has a high commission in London and two consulates-general in Birmingham and Edinburgh.[247] The United Kingdom has a high commission in New Delhi and three deputy high commissions in Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.[248] Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links. This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK. The Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries. The English language, the railways, the legal and parliamentary systems and cricket have been warmly adopted. Indian cuisines are popular in the UK.[249] The United Kingdom's favourite food is often reported to be Indian cuisine, although no official study reports this.[249] Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong. The UK is the second largest investor in India after the US. India is also the fourth[250] largest investor in Britain after the US.[251][252][253] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Indonesia–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Iran–United Kingdom relations
Iran, which was known as Persia before 1935, has had political relations with England since the late Ilkhanate period (13th century) when King Edward I of England sent Geoffrey de Langley to the Ilkhanid court to seek an alliance.[256] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Iraq–United Kingdom relations
Sanctions against Iraq from 1990 to 2003 prevented any form of economic relations with the United Kingdom and any other country for thirteen years. Ties between London and Baghdad are slowly progressing. |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1948 | See Israel–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom has an embassy in Tel Aviv and a consul in Eilat.[257] Israel has an embassy and a consulate in London. The UK's closest partner in the Middle East is Israel, and Israel's closest partner in Europe is the UK.[258][259] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Japan–United Kingdom relations
Contact began in 1600 with the arrival of William Adams (Adams the Pilot, Miura Anjin) on the shores of Kyūshū at Usuki in Ōita Prefecture. During the Sakoku period (1641–1853) there were no relations. but with the impact of Industrial Revolution, British thread company launched its business in 1907 and thrived. The treaty of 1854 saw the resumption of ties which, despite the hiatus of the Second World War, remain very strong in the present day. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Kazakhstan–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom opened an embassy in Kazakhstan in October 1992 and Kazakhstan opened an embassy in Britain in February 1996.[260] Kazakhstan's relations with the West have greatly improved in the last few years as the Government has closely cooperated in the United States-led War on Terror. See also Counter-terrorism in Kazakhstan Britain is the third-largest foreign investor in Kazakhstan with British companies making up 14 per cent of foreign direct investment. Over 100 British companies do business in Kazakhstan.[261] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Kyrgyzstan–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | N/A | See Foreign relations of Macao
There is no British Embassy in Macao. The Consulate-General in Hong Kong develops and maintains relations between the UK and Macao.[262] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Malaysia–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom has a high commission in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has a high commission in London. Both countries are full members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Both the UK and Malaysia are part of the Five Powers Defence Arrangements. Malaysia is a strong partner of Britain in the Far East. Britain has made numerous military sacrifices in guaranteeing a stable independent Malaysia, for example the Malaysian Emergency and the protection of the country during high tensions with Indonesia-Konfrontasi. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Abdul Halim of Kedah paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in July 1974.[263] The Yang di-Pertuan Agong Sultan Azlan Shah of Perak paid a state visit to the United Kingdom in November 1993.[263] Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Malaysia in October 1989, and in September 1998.[264] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of the Maldives
The UK established diplomatic relations with the Maldives on 26 July 1965.[139]
The UK governed the Maldives from 1796 to 1965, when it achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth. The two countries are currently negotiating a free trade agreement.[267] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Myanmar–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Myanmar on 7 July 1947.[121]
The UK governed Myanmar from 1824–1948, aside from a period of Japanese occupation from 1942–1945, it achieved full independence.[269] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Nepal–United Kingdom relations
Relations between the UK and Nepal have historically been friendly and there have been close links between the Royal Families. The UK is highly regarded in Nepal as a result of historical ties, development assistance and long-term support in the struggle for democratic peace in Nepal. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See North Korea–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Oman–United Kingdom relations
The relations between the United Kingdom and Oman are strong and strategic.[270] In April 2010 the government of Oman stated that it wanted to buy Eurofighter Typhoons from the UK.[270] The United Kingdom has an embassy in Mina al Fahal[271] and Oman has an embassy in London.[272] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Pakistan–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Pakistan on 14 August 1947.[118]
The UK governed Pakistan from 1824 to 1947, as part of the British Raj which also included modern day India and Bangladesh, until it achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth. |
| Шаблон:Flag | N/A | See Palestine–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom maintains a consulate in Jerusalem which handles British relations with the Palestinian Authority.[275] The Foreign and Commonwealth Office states the "Consular district covers Jerusalem (West and East), the West Bank and Gaza. As well as work on the Middle East Peace Process and other political issues, the consulate also promotes trade between the UK and the Occupied Palestinian Territories and manages an extensive programme of aid and development work. The latter is undertaken primarily by the DFID office in Jerusalem.".[275] The Palestinian Authority is represented in London by Manuel Hassassian, the Palestinian General Delegate to the United Kingdom.[275] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Philippines–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Qatar–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Qatar on 6 September 1971.[146]
The UK governed Qatar from 1916 to 1971, when it achieved full independence. The UK and the Gulf Cooperation Council, of which Qatar is a member, are negotiating a free trade agreement. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Saudi Arabia–United Kingdom relations
The UK has an embassy in Riyadh, consulate in Jeddah and trade office in Al Khobar.[278] Saudi Arabia has an embassy and consulate in London.[279] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Singapore–United Kingdom relations
Singapore and the United Kingdom share a friendly relationship since Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1959. Singapore retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as the final court of appeal up till 1989 (fully abolished in 1994) due to political reasons. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting[280] | See South Korea–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Sri Lanka–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Syria–United Kingdom relations
In 2001, positive relations were developed between Prime Minister Tony Blair and the Syrian government, as part of the War on Terror. Since the 2011 civil war, relations have deteriorated, and the UK was one of the first countries to recognise the opposition as the sole legitimate representative of the Syrian people. |
| Шаблон:Flag | N/A | See Taiwan–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Tajikistan
The UK established diplomatic relations with Tajikistan on 15 January 1992.[168]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Thailand–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Thailand on 18 April 1855.[91] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Turkey–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom is the second biggest importer of goods from Turkey, after Germany. Turkey exports around 8 per cent of its total goods to the United Kingdom.[293] Around 1,000,000 Britons take holidays in Turkey every year, while 100,000 Turks travel to the UK for business or pleasure.[294] The United Kingdom does not recognise the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey. The UK is also a signatory to a treaty with Greece and Turkey concerning the independence of Cyprus, the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of the island's independence.[295] Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Turkmenistan
The UK established diplomatic relations with Turkmenistan on 23 January 1992.[173]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Arab Emirates–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–Uzbekistan relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Uzbekistan on 18 February 1992.[176]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–Vietnam relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Vietnam on 11 September 1973.[149] The UK occupied Southern Vietnam and Saigon from 1945–1946. The UK and Vietnam entered into a strategic partnership agreement in 2010.[302] The UK and Vietnam have an active United Kingdom–Vietnam Free Trade Agreement since 1 January 2021.[303] Both countries share common membership of CPTPP.[304] |
Europe
Шаблон:See also The UK maintained good relations with Western Europe since 1945, and Eastern Europe since end of the Cold War in 1989. After years of dispute with France it joined the European Economic Community in 1973, which eventually evolved into the European Union through the Maastricht Treaty twenty years later.[305] Unlike the majority of European countries, the UK does not use the euro as its currency and is not a member of the Eurozone.[306] During the years of its membership of the European Union, the United Kingdom had often been referred to as a "peculiar" member, due to its occasional dispute in policies with the organisation. The United Kingdom regularly opted out of EU legislation and policies. Through differences in geography, culture and history, national opinion polls have found that of the 28 nationalities in the European Union, British people have historically felt the least European.[307][308] On 23 June 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union and formally left on 31 January 2020.
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Albania–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Albania on 9 November 1921.[108]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, and OSCE. The two countries also have a free trade agreement.[311] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting[312] | See Foreign relations of Andorra
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Austria–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Belarus–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Belarus on 27 January 1992.[174]
Both countries share common membership of the OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Belgium–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Belgium on 1 December 1830.[76]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Bosnia and Herzegovina–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Bosnia and Herzegovina on 13 April 1992.[178]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, and the OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Bulgaria–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Croatia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Croatia on 24 June 1992.[181]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Cyprus–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Cyprus on 16 August 1960.[118]
Cyprus was ruled by the United Kingdom from 1878, until it achieved independence on 16 August 1960. The UK is a signatory to the Treaty of Guarantee, which maintains that Britain is a "guarantor power" of Cyprus's independence; the UK maintains the two sovereign base areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia on the island of Cyprus.[295] Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, and the OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Czech Republic–United Kingdom relations
Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid a state visit to the Czech Republic in March 1996.[332] Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Denmark–United Kingdom relations
Queen Margrethe II of Denmark paid state visits to the United Kingdom in April/May 1974, and in February 2000.[333] Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom paid state visits to Denmark in May 1957, and in May 1979.[334] Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Estonia
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Finland–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Finland on 28 March 1919.[104]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See France–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with France in 1396.[62]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, G7, G20, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Germany–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Greece–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Greece on 1 January 1833.[77]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Holy See–United Kingdom relations
With the English Reformation, diplomatic links between London and the Holy See, which had been established in 1479, were interrupted in 1536 and again, after a brief restoration in 1553, in 1558. Formal diplomatic ties between the United Kingdom and the Holy See were restored in 1914 and raised to ambassadorial level in 1982.[350][351] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See also Hungary–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Hungary on 22 May 1921.[107]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Iceland–United Kingdom relations
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[206] and NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Ireland–United Kingdom relations
Despite a long history of conflict from English Tudor plantation in Ireland to the Irish War of independence, the UK presently works closely with the government of the Republic of Ireland in areas concerning the peace process in Northern Ireland as well as on many security issues. In 1949 the Irish Houses of Parliament passed the Republic of Ireland Act, making the Republic of Ireland officially fully independent; the country withdrew from the Commonwealth. Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. Until 1998, the Republic of Ireland claimed Northern Ireland, but this was rescinded under the Belfast Agreement through an amendment of the Irish Constitution, which now states an aspiration to peaceful unity. There is an ongoing dispute that also involves Denmark and Iceland, over the status of the ocean floor surrounding Rockall. However, this is for the most part a trivial issue that rarely makes it onto British-Irish meeting agendas.[357] Ireland has confidential agreements with both the United Kingdom and NATO to defend sovereign Irish airspace from intrusions or attacks.
Under the Ireland Act 1949 Irish citizens are treated as though they are Commonwealth citizens and not aliens for the purposes of law. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Italy–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Italy on 13 April 1859.[94]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, G7, G20, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Kosovo–United Kingdom relations
When Kosovo declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, the United Kingdom became one of the first countries to officially announce recognition of sovereign Kosovo on 18 February 2008.[365][366] The United Kingdom has had an embassy in Pristina since 5 March 2008.[367] Kosovo has an embassy in London since 1 October 2008. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Latvia
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting[370] | See Lithuania–United Kingdom relations
There are around 100,000 Lithuanians living in the United Kingdom. Both countries are members of NATO. In 2006, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip paid an official state visit to Lithuania.[374][375]
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Luxembourg
The UK established diplomatic relations with Luxembourg on 27 November 1879.[97]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Malta–United Kingdom relations
In the 1950s and 1960s, serious consideration was given in both countries to the idea of a political union between the United Kingdom and Malta. However, this plan for "Integration with Britain" foundered, and Malta gained its independence from the United Kingdom in 1964. British Monarch Queen Elizabeth II remained Queen of Malta until the country became a Republic in 1974. There is a small Maltese community in the United Kingdom. In addition, the British overseas territory of Gibraltar has been influenced by significant 18th and 19th Century immigration from Malta (see "History of the Maltese in Gibraltar").
Malta is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. See Commonwealth of Nations & Ireland Section above. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Moldova–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Moldova on 17 January 1992.[169]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, and OSCE. The UK and Moldova have a bilateral free trade agreement, which has been active since 1 January 2021.[382] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Montenegro–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Netherlands–United Kingdom relations
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[206] and NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Norway–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Norway on 6 November 1905.[101]
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[206] Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Poland–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Portugal–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Portugal on 9 May 1386.[61]
The bilateral relation dates back to the Middle Ages in 1373 with the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[206] Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Romania–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Romania on 20 February 1880.[98]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, NATO, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Russia–United Kingdom relations
Spanning nearly five centuries, the relationship has often switched from a state of alliance to rivalry. Both countries were allies during World War I and II. During the Cold War, both countries participated in intense espionage activity against each other. In the early-21st century, especially following the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, relations became strained again, and since 2014 have grown more unfriendly due to the Russo-Ukrainian War and to activities by Russia such as the suspected 2018 poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal, seen as hostile by the UK and by many in the Western world. In the wake of the poisoning, 28 countries expelled suspected Russian spies acting as diplomats.[404] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See San Marino–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Serbia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Serbia on 20 February 1880.[79]
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, and OSCE. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Slovakia–United Kingdom relations
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Slovenia
Both countries are members of NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Spain–United Kingdom relations
During the Second World War Spain remained neutral, but was perceived to be closely aligned with Nazi Germany. Following the end of the war, frosty relations continued between the two states until the end of the Franco era and the democratisation of Spain. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[206] and NATO. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Sweden–United Kingdom relations
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Switzerland–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Ukraine–United Kingdom relations
|
North America
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Antigua and Barbuda–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Antigua and Barbuda on 1 November 1981.[142] Both countries are Commonwealth Realms.
The UK governed Antigua and Barbuda from 1632 to 1981, when Antigua and Barbuda achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth; they are both parties of the UK-CARIFORUM continuity Trade Agreement.[427] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Barbados–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Barbados on 30 November 1966.[141]
The UK governed Barbados from 1625 to 1966, when Barbados achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth; they are both parties of the UK-CARIFORUM continuity Trade Agreement.[427] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Belize–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Belize on 21 September 1981.[159] Both countries are Commonwealth Realms.
The UK governed Belize from 1783 to 1981, when Belize achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of the Commonwealth, they are also both parties of the UK-CARIFORUM continuity Trade Agreement.[427] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Canada–United Kingdom relations
Both nations enjoy a cooperative and intimate contact; the two countries are related through history, the Commonwealth of Nations, and their sharing of the same Head of State and monarch.[431] Both countries fought together in both World Wars, the Korean War, and more recently cooperate in the coalition in the War in Afghanistan. Both are founding members of NATO, and also belong to the G7 (and the G8). Winston Churchill said Canada was the "linchpin of the English-speaking world", as it connects two other anglophone countries: the US and the UK. These three countries were the first to share the knowledge of the atom bomb with each other, as all three worked on the Manhattan Project together. Despite this shared history, the UK and Canada have grown apart economically. The UK was Canada's largest trade partner in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is now well down the list. However relations are still strong, with large migration between the two countries, as well as Canada having the highest favourable public opinion of the UK in the world. The UK is currently in the process of acceeding to the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, of which Canada is a founding member. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Cuba–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1850 | See Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic
The UK established diplomatic relations with the Domican Republic on 6 March 1850.[87]
The United Kingdom was the first country to recognize the Dominican Republic.[434] Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] Both countries are parties of the UK-CARIFORUM continuity Trade Agreement.[427] |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1883 | See Foreign relations of El Salvador
The UK established diplomatic relations with El Salvador in 1883.[99]
Both countries are parties of the UK-Central America continuity Trade Agreement.[436] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Grenada–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | 1859 | See Foreign relations of Haiti
The UK established diplomatic relations with Haiti on 13 May 1859.[95]
|
| Шаблон:Flag | 1849 | See Foreign relations of Honduras
The UK established diplomatic relations with Honduras on 16 June 1849, when Frederick Chatfield was appointed Charge d'Affaires despite being based in Guatemala.[85]
Both countries are parties of the UK-Central America continuity Trade Agreement.[436] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Mexico–United Kingdom relations
The United Kingdom was the first country in Europe to recognize Mexico's Independence.[439] The relationship between the two nations began after the Pastry War when the United Kingdom aided Mexico against France. Also, relations improved when Mexico joined the British alongside the Allies to fight the Japanese forces in the Pacific War.
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Nicaragua
The UK established diplomatic relations with Nicaragua on 22 February 1859.[93]
Both countries are parties of the UK-Central America continuity Trade Agreement.[436] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Panama
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Saint Vincent and the Grenadines–United Kingdom relations |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–United States relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with the United States on 1 June 1785.[446] UK-US diplomatic relations is commonly described as the "Special Relationship".
The United States declared its independence from the United Kingdom on 4 July 1776.[446] Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact,[206] AUKUS, Five Eyes, the G7, the G20, NATO, OECD, OSCE, UKUSA Agreement, and the UNSC. Bilateral agreements between the two countries include the US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement, and a proposed free trade agreement. |
Oceania
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Australia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Australia in March 1936.[115] Both countries are Commonwealth Realms.
The UK governed Australia from the late 18th century until 1942, when Australia achieved full independence. Both countries share common membership of AUKUS, the Commonwealth, CPTPP, Five Eyes, the Five Power Defence Arrangements, the G20, OECD, and the UKUSA Agreement. The two countries have a bilateral free trade agreement. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Nauru–United Kingdom relations
Nauru was part of the British Western Pacific Territories from September 1914 and June 1921.[450] The British Government had ceased to exercise any direct role in the governance of Nauru by 1968, when the island achieved its independence. The Nauruan government maintains an Hon. Consul, Martin W I Weston. The British High Commission in Suva is responsible for the United Kingdom's bilateral relations with Nauru.[451] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See New Zealand–United Kingdom relations
Up to about the 1960s, New Zealand also had extremely close economic relations with the United Kingdom, especially considering the distance at which trade took place. As an example, in 1955, Britain took 65.3 per cent of New Zealand's exports, and only during the following decades did this dominant position begin to decline as the United Kingdom oriented itself more towards the European Union, with the share of exports going to Britain having fallen to only 6.2 per cent in 2000.[452] Historically, some industries, such as dairying, a major economic factor in the former colony, had even more dominant trade links, with 80–100 per cent of all cheese and butter exports going to Britain from around 1890 to 1940.[453] This strong bond also supported the mutual feelings for each other in other areas. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Papua New Guinea–United Kingdom relations
Papua New Guinea and the United Kingdom share Queen Elizabeth as their head of state. They have had relations since 1975 when Papua New Guinea gained independence from Australia. |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Solomon Islands
The UK maintains a British High Commission in Honiara.[454] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Tonga
The United Kingdom and the Kingdom of Tonga established formal mutual diplomatic recognition in 1879.[455] Tonga was then a British protectorate from 1900 to 1970, whereupon diplomatic relations resumed at the level of sovereign states. |
South America
| Country | Formal relations began | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Argentina–United Kingdom relations
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Brazil–United Kingdom relations
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Chile–United Kingdom relations
Chile provided some assistance to Britain during the Falklands War since it was itself at risk of possible war with Argentina regarding the boundary between the two nations in the Beagle Channel.[458]
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Colombia–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Colombia on 18 April 1825.[72]
Both countries share common membership of the OECD, as well as the UK-Andean countries free trade agreement.[461] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Ecuador
The UK established diplomatic relations with Ecuador on 29 January 1853.[88]
Both countries are parties of the UK-Andean countries free trade agreement.[461] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Guyana
Formerly known as British Guiana (until 1966), it became the U.K.'s largest Commonwealth realm in South America upon the nation's independence the same year. In 1970, the nation transitioned to republic status through newly laid constitution and today both nations continue relations chiefly through the Commonwealth of Nations. Guyana is roughly the same physical size as the U.K. Due to proximity, Guyana predominately associates and identifies culturally with the close by Commonwealth Caribbean area and takes part in the West Indies Cricket Team as national sport. Ninety per cent of the nation's population of 800 thousand persons live on ten per cent of the nation's mostly coastal area while the nations' interior consists mostly of Amerindians and native rainforests.
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Paraguay–United Kingdom relations
Diplomatic relations between both countries were established on 4 March 1853, with the signing of a treaty of Friendship, Trade and Navigation. A dominant view in Paraguay and significant in all the Southern Cone is that the interests of the British Empire played a considerable role during the Paraguayan War.[466]
|
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Peru–United Kingdom relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Peru on 10 October 1823.[71] Both countries are members of CPTPP and the UK-Andean Countries Free Trade Agreement.[470] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See Foreign relations of Suriname |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–Uruguay relations
Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact.[206] |
| Шаблон:Flag | Шаблон:Date table sorting | See United Kingdom–Venezuela relations
The UK established diplomatic relations with Venezuela on 29 October 1834.[78] |
International organisations
The United Kingdom is a member of the following international organisations:[475]
- ADB - Asian Development Bank (nonregional member)
- AfDB - African Development Bank (nonregional member)
- Arctic Council (observer)
- Australia Group
- BIS - Bank for International Settlements
- Commonwealth of Nations
- CBSS - Council of the Baltic Sea States (observer)
- CDB - Caribbean Development Bank
- Council of Europe
- CERN - European Organization for Nuclear Research
- CPTPP - Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans–Pacific Partnership
- EAPC - Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council
- EBRD - European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- EIB - European Investment Bank
- ESA - European Space Agency
- FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
- FATF - Financial Action Task Force
- G-20 - Group of Twenty
- G-5 - Group of Five
- G7 - Group of Seven
- G8 - Group of Eight
- G-10 - Group of Ten (economics)
- IADB - Inter-American Development Bank
- IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency
- IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (also known as the World Bank)
- ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization
- ICC - International Chamber of Commerce
- ICCt - International Criminal Court
- ICRM - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
- IDA - International Development Association
- IEA - International Energy Agency
- IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development
- IFC - International Finance Corporation
- IFRCS - International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
- IHO - International Hydrographic Organization
- ILO - International Labour Organization
- IMF - International Monetary Fund
- IMO - International Maritime Organization
- IMSO - International Mobile Satellite Organization
- Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization
- IOC - International Olympic Committee
- IOM - International Organization for Migration
- IPU - Inter-Parliamentary Union
- ISO - International Organization for Standardization
- ITSO - International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
- ITU - International Telecommunication Union
- ITUC - International Trade Union Confederation
- MIGA - Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
- MONUSCO - United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
- NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization
- NEA - Nuclear Energy Agency
- NSG - Nuclear Suppliers Group
- OAS - Organization of American States (observer)
- OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
- OPCW - Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
- OSCE - Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
- Paris Club
- PCA - Permanent Court of Arbitration
- PIF - Pacific Islands Forum (partner)
- SECI - Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (observer)
- UN - United Nations
- UNSC - United Nations Security Council
- UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
- UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
- UNFICYP - United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
- UNHCR - United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
- UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization
- UNMIS - United Nations Mission in Sudan
- UNRWA - United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
- UPU - Universal Postal Union
- WCO - World Customs Organization
- WHO - World Health Organization
- WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization
- WMO - World Meteorological Organization
- WTO - World Trade Organization
- Zangger Committee - (also known as the) Nuclear Exporters Committee
See also
- Timeline of British diplomatic history
- Timeline of European imperialism
- Anglophobia
- British diaspora
- History of the United Kingdom
- Soft power of the United Kingdom
- Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office
- Heads of United Kingdom Missions
- List of diplomatic missions of the United Kingdom
- European Union–United Kingdom relations
- Latin America–United Kingdom relations
- Accession of the United Kingdom to CPTPP
- Free trade agreements of the United Kingdom
- United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union
References
Bibliography
- Casey, Terrence. The Blair Legacy: Politics, Policy, Governance, and Foreign Affairs (2009) excerpt and text search
- Daddow, Oliver, and Jamie Gaskarth, eds. British foreign policy: the New Labour years (Palgrave, 2011)
- Daddow, Oliver. "Constructing a ‘great’ role for Britain in an age of austerity: Interpreting coalition foreign policy, 2010–2015." International Relations 29.3 (2015): 303-318.
- Dickie, John. The New Mandarins: How British Foreign Policy Works (2004)
- Dumbrell, John. A special relationship: Anglo-American relations from the Cold War to Iraq (2006)
- Finlan, Alastair. Contemporary Military Strategy and the Global War on Terror: US and UK Armed Forces in Afghanistan and Iraq 2001-2012 (2014)
- Gallagher, Julia. "Healing the scar? Idealizing Britain in Africa, 1997–2007." African Affairs 108.432 (2009): 435-451 online
- Honeyman, V. C. "From Liberal Interventionism to Liberal Conservatism: the short road in foreign policy from Blair to Cameron." British Politics (2015). abstract
- Lane, Ann. Strategy, Diplomacy and UK Foreign Policy (Palgrave Macmillan, 2010)
- Leech, Philip, and Jamie Gaskarth. "British Foreign Policy and the Arab Spring." Diplomacy & Statecraft 26#1 (2015).
- Lunn, Jon, Vaughne Miller, Ben Smith. "British foreign policy since 1997 - Commons Library Research Paper RP08/56" (UK House of Commons, 2008) 123pp onlineШаблон:Dead link
- Magyarics, Tamas. Balancing in Central Europe: Great Britain and Hungary in the 1920s
- Seah, Daniel. "The CFSP as an aspect of conducting foreign relations by the United Kingdom: With Special Reference to the Treaty of Amity & Cooperation in Southeast Asia]" International Review of Law (2015) "online
- Seton-Watson, R. W. Britain in Europe (1789–1914): A Survey of Foreign Policy (1937) online
- Stephens, Philip. Britain Alone: The Path from Suez to Brexit (2021) excerpted
- Whitman, Richard G. "The calm after the storm? Foreign and security policy from Blair to Brown." Parliamentary Affairs 63.4 (2010): 834–848. online
- Williams, Paul. British Foreign Policy under New Labour (2005)
Primary sources
- Blair, Tony. A Journey: My Political Life (2010)
External links
Шаблон:UK bilateral relationsШаблон:Policies of the United KingdomШаблон:Foreign relations of Europe Шаблон:United Kingdom topics
- ↑ F.S. Northedge, The troubled giant: Britain among the great powers, 1916-1939 (1966).
- ↑ Erik Goldstein, Winning the peace: British diplomatic strategy, peace planning, and the Paris Peace Conference, 1916-1920 (1991).
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- ↑ Henry R. Winkler. "The Emergence of a Labor Foreign Policy in Great Britain, 1918-1929." Journal of Modern History 28.3 (1956): 247-258. in JSTOR Шаблон:Webarchive
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- ↑ Nathaniel Copsey and Tim Haughton, "Farewell Britannia? 'Issue Capture' and the Politics of David Cameron's 2013 EU Referendum Pledge." JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies (2014) 52-S1: 74-89.
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