Английская Википедия:Fortition
Шаблон:More citations needed Шаблон:Sound change Шаблон:IPA notice
In articulatory phonetics, fortition, also known as strengthening, is a consonantal change that increases the degree of stricture. It is the opposite of the more common lenition.[1] For example, a fricative or an approximant may become a stop (i.e. Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA becomes Шаблон:IPA). Although not as typical of sound change as lenition, fortition may occur in prominent positions, such as at the beginning of a word or stressed syllable; as an effect of reducing markedness; or due to morphological leveling.Шаблон:Citation needed
Examples
The extremely common approximant sound Шаблон:IPA is sometimes subject to fortition; since it is a semivowel, almost any change to the sound other than simple deletion would constitute fortition. It has changed into the voiced fricative Шаблон:IPA in a number of indigenous languages of the Arctic, such as the Eskimo–Aleut languages and Ket, and also in some varieties of Spanish. In the Southern Ryukyuan language Yonaguni, it has changed word-initially into Шаблон:IPA. Via a voiceless palatal approximant, it has turned in some Germanic languages into Шаблон:IPA, the voiceless equivalent of Шаблон:IPA and also cross-linguistically rare though less so than Шаблон:IPA. Another change turned Шаблон:IPA to an affricate Шаблон:IPA during the development of the Romance languages from Latin.
Fortition of the cross-linguistically rare interdental fricatives Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA to the almost universal corresponding stops Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA is relatively common. This has occurred in most continental Germanic languages and several English dialects, several Uralic languages, and a few Semitic languages, among others. This has the result of reducing the markedness of the sounds Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA.
Fortition also frequently occurs with voiceless versions of the common lateral approximant Шаблон:IPA, usually sourced from combinations of Шаблон:IPA with a voiceless obstruent. The product is a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative Шаблон:IPA.
In Welsh, words inherited from Proto-Celtic with initial Шаблон:IPA or Шаблон:IPA hardened to Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA, respectively. Examples: Old Welsh lau Шаблон:IPA to Modern Welsh Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA; Old Welsh ros Шаблон:IPA to Modern Welsh Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA.
In the Cushitic language Iraqw, *d has lenited to Шаблон:IPA between vowels, but *r has undergone fortition to Шаблон:IPA word initially.
In Friulian, ž > d : yoyba, jobia > dobia, doba ; gel (tosc. giallo) > dal ; giovane > doven ; giugno > dun [2]
Gemination of word-initial consonants occurs in Italian if a word-final stressed vowel precedes without intervening pause. Final stressed vowels are by nature short, and short stressed vowels precede a consonant within a (phonetic) word only if that consonant ends the syllable. An item such as comprò 's/he bought' thus triggers gemination of the following consonant, whereas compra 's/he buys/is buying' does not: comprò la pasta Шаблон:IPA 's/he bought the pasta' but compra la pasta Шаблон:IPA 's/he buys/is buying the pasta'.
In addition to language-internal development, fortition can also occur when a language acquires loanwords. Goidelic languages frequently display fortition in loanwords as most initial fricatives (except for Шаблон:IPA, Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:IPA) are disallowed in the citation form of Goidelic words. Thus initial fricatives of loanwords are strengthened to the corresponding unlenited variant or the nearest equivalent if the fricative is not part of the phoneme inventory.
Examples from Scottish Gaelic:[3]
Post-nasal fortition
Post-nasal fortition is very common in Bantu languages. For example, Swahili Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang become Шаблон:Lang after a nasal prefix, and Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang; voiceless stops become aspirated. In Shambala, Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang become Шаблон:Lang, and Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA become Шаблон:Lang and Шаблон:Lang as well. In Bukusu, Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA and Шаблон:Lang become Шаблон:Lang, Шаблон:Lang becomes Шаблон:Lang Шаблон:IPA, and Шаблон:Lang become Шаблон:Lang. In other languages, voiceless fricatives Шаблон:Lang become affricates Шаблон:Lang; see for example Xhosa.[4] This is similar to the epenthetic stop in words like dance (Шаблон:IPA) in many dialects of English, which effectively is fortition of fricative Шаблон:IPA to affricate Шаблон:IPA.
See also
- Consonant mutation
- Final-obstruent devoicing
- Grimm's law
- Historical linguistics
- Sesotho nasalization
References
- ↑ Шаблон:Cite book
- ↑ Sach- und Sprachatlas Italiens, sub vocibus
- ↑ MacBain, A. (1911) An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language. Gairm.
- ↑ Jeff Mielke, 2008. The emergence of distinctive features, p 139ff
- Crowley, Terry. (1997) An Introduction to Historical Linguistics. 3rd edition. Oxford University Press.
